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Human Biology
Lecture 12-14
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Lect. 11: 3 basic types of skeletal systems in the animal kingdom: | 1. Hydrostatic 2. Exoskeleton 3. Endoskeleton |
| Lect. 11: Hydrostatic skeleton (Earthworms) | -Earthworms and sea anemones have a hydrostatic skeleton. -Circular muscles squeeze the body. -Longitudinal muscles shorten the body. |
| Lect. 11: Exoskeleton Arthropods: (insects, spiders, etc) | -Arthropods (insects, spiders, etc) have an external skeleton made of chitin (a carbohydrate). -Muscles attach to the exoskeleton, which is flexible at the joints. |
| Lect. 11: Endoskeleton (Skeletal System) | -Vertebrates have an endoskeleton made of cartilage or bone. -Bone and cartilage are living tissue (connective tissue). - |
| Lect. 11: How do these actions produce motion in the earthworm? | Earthworms using circular and longitudinal muscles, as well as bristles called setae. |
| Lect. 11: What are some advantages an exoskeleton? | Advantages- it protects its internal organs, protects it from predators, keeps the animal from drying out, and attaches to the animal's muscles to aid in movement |
| Lect. 11: What are some disadvantages an exoskeleton? | Disadvantages- is that the process of molting leaves the animal vulnerable for some time after. |
| Lect. 11: What are some advantages of an endoskeleton? | Advantages- allow for faster movement than exoskeletons but the muscles are less flexible than an animal with a hydrostatic skeleton |
| Lect. 11: What are some disadvantages of an endoskeleton? | Disadvantages- does not provide the same level of protection to the body as an exoskeleton does. |
| Lect. 11: What are some differences between an exoskeleton vs endoskeleton? | A. Provides external protection B. Must be shed for growth. C. Becomes heavy if it is too large. D. Storage of minerals. |
| Lect. 11: What is an advantage of an endoskeleton over an exoskeleton? | - Provides external protection. - Protection for internal organs. - Grows as the organism grows. - Provides a point of attachment for muscles. - Made of protein. |
| Lect. 11: Functions of the endoskeleton | - Support and protection for the body. - Locomotion (in concert with muscles). - Produce blood cells in bone marrow. - Store calcium and phosphorous. - Store energy in yellow marrow |
| Lect. 11: Bone is made up of living tissue that is constantly changing, a process known as | Remodeling |
| Lect. 11: 3 types of cells are involved in removing old bone tissue and replacing it with fresh bone tissue (bone remodeling): | - Osteoblasts - Osteoclasts - Osteocytes |
| Lect. 11: Osteoblasts: | make new bone. |
| Lect. 11: Osteoclasts | break down and reabsorb bone. |
| Lect. 11: Osteocytes: | long-lived cells inside bone that direct osteoblasts and osteoclasts. |
| Lect. 11: Bone | is made up of bone cells in a matrix of collagen and minerals |
| Lect. 11: Cartilage tissue | consists of chondrocytes (cartilage cells) in a matrix of collagen protein. Cartilage is tough, flexible material that pads joints and is found in the nose and ears. |
| Lect. 11: why do broken bones take so much longer to heal than cuts in the skin? | the periosteum , large blood clots, compact bone, and spongy bone are facture, so bone in the body is trying replace new blood vessels and cartilage to fill in the clot with bony callus to complete the healing process. |
| Lect. 11: 3 types of muscle tissue found in vertebrates | - Skeletal: striated, voluntary control - Smooth: involuntary control - Cardiac: involuntary control |
| Lect. 11: myofibril | myofibril is composed of “thick” myosin and “thin” actin filaments. |
| Lect. 11: Sarcomere | Sarcomere is made of thick and thin filaments. |
| Lect. 11: Thick filaments | thick filaments, made mostly of myosin, have small “heads” that move |
| Lect. 11: Thin filaments | thin filaments (actin) have points to which the myosin heads temporarily attach. |
| Lect. 11: Analogy: "myosin" & "actin" | myosin is a rowboat, and actin is the water |
| Lect. 11: 2 Types of Skeletal Muscles Fibers | Slow Twitch Fibers Fast Twitch Fibers |
| Lect. 11: Fast Twitch Fibers | less myoglobin, but more able to use glycolysis to quickly produce ATP. |
| Lect. 11: Slow Twitch Fibers | lots of myoglobin and mitochondria. |
| Lect. 11: Fast Twitch fiber activity: | - Fast-twitch fibers are for bursts of strength and speed. - The tradeoff: Fast-twitch fibers fatigue sooner. |
| Lect. 11: Slow-twitch fibers activity: | - Slow-twitch fibers are for endurance. - Trade-off: Slow-twitch fibers cannot supply a lot of power at once |
| Lect. 11: Classifies Joints types into 3 Categories | - Fibrous joints (ex. Sutures of the skull) - Cartilaginous joints (ex. Sternum, pubic symphysis) - Synovial joints (ex. Knee, hip, elbow) |
| Lect. 11: Fibrous joints | (ex. Sutures of the skull) |
| Lect. 11: Cartilaginous joints | (ex. Sternum, pubic symphysis) |
| Lect. 11: Synovial joints | (ex. Knee, hip, elbow) |
| Lect. 11: Movement joint types | - Flexion -Extension -Abduction - Adduction -Rotation |
| Lect. 11: Flexion: | decreases angle of a joint. |
| Lect. 11: Extension: | increases angle of a joint. |
| Lect. 11: Abduction: | movement away from midline. |
| Lect. 11: Adduction: | movement toward midline. |
| Lect. 11: Rotation: | turning around an axis |
| Lect. 11: The knee | The knee is a hinge joint. |
| Lect. 11: The hip | The hip is a ball and socket joint |
| Lect. 11: The wrist | The wrist is a gliding joint. |
| Lect. 11: Which kind of muscle constricts veins when blood pressure drops suddenly? | Smooth Muscle |
| Lect. 11: Give examples of joints and movements that demonstrate: | Flexion Extension Abduction Adduction Rotation |
| Lect. 11: Which kind of muscle contracts during the knee-jerk reflex? | Skeletal Muscle |
| Lect. 11: Skeletal muscles contract when ___ “walk” along the ___. | Myosin heads, actin fibers |
| Lect. 11: A person born with lots of slow-twitch muscle fibers would be great at | Cross-country skiing |
| Lect. 11: Vertebrates | Vertebrates have an endoskeleton made of cartilage or bone. |
| Lect. 11: Bone and cartilage | Bone and cartilage are living tissue (connective tissue). |
| Lect. 11: Bones may made up of: | Compact bone tissue. Spongy bone (location of red marrow) Marrow cavity (location of yellow marrow) |
| Lect. 11: Spongy bone location | Spongy bone (location of red marrow) |
| Lect. 11: Marrow cavity location | Marrow cavity (location of yellow marrow) |
| Lect. 12: Some incoming signals dem and a simple, immediate response. The spinal cord can shoot out a reflex command and without bothering the brain, called a | Reflex Arc. |
| Lect. 12: 4 region locations of Spinal Nerves | 1. Cervical region 2. Thoracic region 3. Lumbar region 4. Sacral region |
| Lect. 12: All nervous t issue, from the brain to the spinal cord to the furthest nerve branch, includes cells called | neurons. |
| Lect. 12: Neurons | Neurons are charged cells: they conduct electrical signals to pass inform at ion through the body. A typical neuron consists of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon with an axon terminal. |
| Lect. 12: Mylon Sheath | Pathway that sends impulses |
| Lect. 12: When an electrical signal reaches the axons terminal of a neuron, it stimulates the release of special chemicals called | Neurotransmitters |
| Lect. 12: 2 types of neurotransmitters | Excitatory or Inhibitory |
| Lect. 12: Excitatory neurotransmitters | stimulate electrical signals in other neurons and encourage responses from body cells. |
| Lect. 12: Inhibitory transmitters | discourage signals and cellular responses. |
| Lect. 12: 3 protective membranes layers | - ( meninges) - ventricles ( chambers) - cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF) |
| Lect. 12: 4 major regions of the brain | 1. cerebrum 2. diencephalon 3. cerebellum 4. brain stem |
| Lect. 12: cerebrum | The cerebrum is the largest brain structure and part of the forebrain ( or pros- encephalon). |
| Lect. 12: Each hemisphere can be divided into 4 lobes: | 1. Frontal lobe 2. Temporal lobe 3. Occipital lobe 4. Parietal lobe |
| Lect. 12: 3 types of brainstems consists of the | 1. midbrain 2. Pons 3. medulla oblongata |
| Lect. 12: pons | pons helps control breathing rhythms. |
| Lect. 12: medulla | medulla handles respiration, digestion, and circulation, and reflexes such as swallowing, coughing, and sneezing. |
| Lect. 12: midbrain | midbrain contributes to motor control, vision, and hearing, as w ell as vision- and hearing- related reflexes. |
| Lect. 12: cerebellum | The cerebellum is the second largest part of the brain. |
| Lect. 12: Hypothalamus | helps to process sensory impulses of smell, taste, and vision and manages emotions such as pain and pleasure, aggression and amusement. |
| Lect. 12: Thalamus | Mediates Sensory Data and Relays Signals to the Conscious Brain |
| Lect. 12: Sensory receptors (Modality) | - Vision - Hearing - Olfaction (Smell) - Taste - Touch |
| Lect. 12: Sensory receptors (Stimulus) | - Light - Vibration - Airborne Chemicals - Food Chemicals - Pressure, Pain, Temperature - Blood Pressure , PH |
| Lect. 12: 5 sensory information | 1. Sight 2. Sound 3. Olfaction (Smell) 4. Taste 5. Touch |
| Lect. 12: Eyes | Eyes Translate Light into Image Signals for the Brain to Process the information |
| Lect. 12: Light for eyes | Light travels to the eyes to the brain to the occipital lobe |
| Lect. 12: 3 types of bones in the inner ear | 1. malleus 2. incus 3. stapes |
| Lect. 12: 3 major tissue layers | 1. Cells in muscle spindles 2. Golgi tendon cells 3. Cells at each joint |
| Lect. 12: Cells in muscle spindles | Cells in muscle spindles that sense the direction and amount of muscle stretch |
| Lect. 12: Golgi tendon cells | Golgi tendon cells which are in the tendons at the ends of each main muscle where they connect to the bone, to provide a measure of how much the tendon is stretching. |
| Lect. 12: Cells at each joint | Cells at each joint where the bones connect to each other with ligaments, to know the amount and direction of each joint movement. |
| Lect. 12: The sense of smell is called | olfaction |
| Lect. 12: What are all those small bumps on the top of the tongue they’re called | papillae |
| Lect. 13: Two intrinsic systems | - Innate (nonspecific) defense system - Adaptive (specific) defense system |
| Lect. 13: Innate defense system has two lines of defense | First - external body membranes (skin and mucosae) Second - antimicrobial proteins, phagocytes, and other cells |
| Lect. 13: Innate defense system or nonspecific 1st line of defense system | First defense - external body membranes (skin and mucosae) |
| Lect. 13: Innate defense system or nonspecific 2nd line of defense system | Second defense - antimicrobial proteins, phagocytes, and other cells |
| Lect. 13: Adaptive defense system or acquired 3rd line of defense system | third defense- attacks particular foreign substances |
| Lect. 13: 2nd line of defense system 'mechanism' | Inflammation most important mechanism |
| Lect. 13: What is a another term for Innate defense system? | Nonspecific |
| Lect. 13: What is another term for Adaptive defense system? | Acquired |
| Lect. 13: 2 types of Phagocytes | - Neutrophil - Macrophages |
| Lect. 13: Complement Proteins | they work in a unison team to help each other out to destroy viruses or other invading pathogens |
| Lect. 13: Phagocytes function 1st function | Phagocyte adheres to pathogens or debris |
| Lect. 13: Phagocytes function 2nd function | Phagocyte forms pseudopods that eventually engulf the particles, forming a phagosome. |
| Lect. 13: Phagocytes function 3rd function | Lysosome fuses with the phagocytic vesicle, forming a phagolysosome |
| Lect. 13: Phagocytes function 4th function | Lysosomal enzymes digest the particles, leaving a residual body. |
| Lect. 13: Phagocytes function 5th function | Exocytosis of the vesicle removes indigestible and residual material. |
| Lect. 13: Helper T cells cause | cells cause release of enzymes of respiratory burst, which kill pathogens resistant to lysosomal enzymes by - Releasing cell-killing free radicals - Producing oxidizing chemicals (e.g., H2O2) - increasing pH and osmolarity of phagolysosome |
| Lect. 13: Steps for phagocyte mobilization Step 1 Leukocytosis | Leukocytosis: release of neutrophils from bone marrow in response to leukocytosis-inducing factors from injured cells |
| Lect. 13: Steps for phagocyte mobilization Step 2: Margination | Margination: neutrophils cling to walls of capillaries in inflamed area in response to Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) |
| Lect. 13: Steps for phagocyte mobilization Step 3: Diapedesis | Diapedesis of neutrophils |
| Lect. 13: Steps for phagocyte mobilization Step 4: Chemotaxis | Chemotaxis: inflammatory chemicals (chemotactic agent) promote positive chemotaxis of neutrophils |
| Lect. 13: Interferons (IFNs) | IFNs enter neighboring cells produce proteins that block viral reproduction and degrade viral RNA |
| Lect. 13:INNATE IMMUNITY Rapid responses to a broad range of microbes. External Defense: | - Skin - Mucus Membrane - Secretion |
| Lect. 13: INNATE IMMUNITY Rapid responses to a broad range of microbes. Internal Defense: | - Phagocytic cells - Antimicrobial proteins - Inflammatory response - Natural killer cells - Complement Proteins cells |
| Lect. 13: ACQUIRED IMMUNITY Slower responses to specific microbes | - Humoral response (antibodies) - Cell-mediated response (cytotoxic lymphocytes) |
| Lect. 13: Adaptive immune (specific defense) system | -Protects against infectious agents and abnormal body cells - Amplifies inflammatory response - Activates complement protein cells |
| Lect. 13: Adaptive Defenses step 1 : Specific | Specific – recognizes and targets specific antigens |
| Lect. 13: Adaptive Defenses step 2 : Systemic | Systemic – not restricted to initial site |
| Lect. 13: Adaptive Defenses step 3: Memory | Have memory – stronger attacks to "known" antigens |
| Lect. 13: Adaptive Defense Two separate, overlapping arms | - Humoral (antibody-mediated) immunity - Cellular (cell-mediated) immunity |
| Lect. 13: Immunogenicity: | ability to stimulate proliferation of specific lymphocytes |
| Lect. 13: Reactivity: | ability to react with activated lymphocytes and antibodies released by immunogenic reactions |
| Lect. 13: 3 types of cells | - B lymphocytes (B cells)—humoral immunity - T lymphocytes (T cells)—cellular immunity - Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) |
| Lect. 13: T cells | T cells mature in thymus under negative and positive selection pressures ("tests") |
| Lect. 13: B cells | B cells mature in red bone marrow |
| Lect. 13: Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) | - Do not respond to specific antigens - Play essential auxiliary roles in immunity |
| Lect. 13: Immunological Memory Primary immune response | - Cell proliferation and differentiation upon first antigen exposure - Lag period: three to six days - Peak levels of plasma antibody are reached in 10 days - Antibody levels then decline |
| Lect. 13: Immunological Memory Secondary immune response | Re-exposure to same antigen gives faster, more prolonged, more effective response |
| Lect. 13: 2 types of Active Humoral Immunity: | - Naturally acquired - Artificially acquired |
| Lect. 13: Active Humoral Immunity Naturally acquired | response to bacterial or viral infection |
| Lect. 13: Active Humoral Immunity Artificially acquired | response to vaccine of dead or attenuated pathogens |
| Lect. 13: Vaccines | - Most of dead or attenuated pathogens - Spare us symptoms of primary response - Provide antigenic determinants that are immunogenic and reactive |
| Lect. 13: 2 types of Passive Humoral Immunity | - Naturally acquired - Artificially acquired |
| Lect. 13: Passive Humoral Immunity Naturally acquired | Naturally acquired—antibodies delivered to fetus via placenta or to infant through milk |
| Lect. 13: Passive Humoral Immunity Artificially acquired | Artificially acquired—injection of serum, such as gamma globulin |
| Lect. 13: Humoral immunity | - Active - Passive |
| Lect. 13: Active Humoral Immunity | - Naturally acquired - Artificially acquired |
| Lect. 13: Active Humoral Immunity Naturally acquired | Infection; contact with pathogen |
| Lect. 13: Active Humoral Immunity Artificially acquired | Vaccine; dead or attenuated pathogens |
| Lect. 13: Passive Humoral Immunity Naturally acquired | Antibodies passed from mother to fetus via placenta; or to infant in her milk |
| Lect. 13: Passive Humoral Immunity Artificially acquired | Injection of exogenous antibodies (gamma globulin) |
| Lect. 13: Antibodies | - Immunoglobulins (Ig)—gamma globulin portion of blood - Proteins secreted by plasma cells - Capable of binding specifically with antigen detected by B cells - Grouped into one of five Ig classes |
| Lect. 13: Basic Antibody Structure | Constant (C) regions of stem - Determine antibody class (IgM, IgA, IgD, IgG, or IgE) - Serve common functions in all antibodies by dictating - Cells and chemicals that antibody can bind - How antibody class functions to eliminate antigens |
| Lect. 13: Determine antibody class | (IgM, IgA, IgD, IgG, or IgE) |
| Lect. 13: Antibody Targets and Functions Antibodies | Antibodies inactivate and tag antigens; do not destroy them - Form antigen-antibody (immune) complexes |
| Lect. 13: Antibody Targets and Functions Defense Mechanisms | Defensive mechanisms used by antibodies - Neutralization and agglutination (the two most important) - Precipitation and complement fixation |
| Lect. 13: Cytotoxic T (TC) cells | - Directly attack and kill other cells - Activated TC cells circulate in blood and lymph and lymphoid organs in search of body cells displaying antigen they recognize |
| Lect. 13: Roles of Cytotoxic T (TC) cells Targets: | - Virus-infected cells - Cells with intracellular bacteria or parasites - Cancer cells - Foreign cells (transfusions or transplants) |
| Lect. 13: Natural Killer cells | -Recognize other signs of abnormality - Use same key mechanisms as TC cells for killing their target cells - Immune surveillance—NK and TC cells prowl for markers they recognize |
| Lect. 13: Dendritic cells | Dendritic cells phagocytize pathogens, enter lymphatics to present antigens to T cells in lymph node - Most effective antigen presenter known - Key link between innate and adaptive immunity |
| Lect. 13: Macrophages | Macrophages widespread in lymphoid organs and connective tissues - Present antigens to T cells to activate themselves into voracious phagocytes that secrete bactericidal chemicals |
| Lect. 13: B lymphocytes | - Do not activate naïve T cells - Present antigens to helper T cell to assist own activation |
| Lect. 13: Neutralization | Simplest defensive mechanism - Antibodies block specific sites on viruses or bacterial exotoxins - Prevent these antigens from binding to receptors on tissue cells - Antigen-antibody complexes undergo phagocytosis |
| Lect. 13: 2 populations of T cells | helper T cells cytotoxic T cells (TC) |
| Lect. 13: helper T cells cytotoxic T cells (TC) | - Destroy cells harboring foreign antigens - Also become memory T cells |
Created by:
Rodney C
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