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Final Exam Review
Bio Final
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Cells with only one set of chromosomes, such as sex cells or gametes, are | haploid |
| Somatic cells are | diploid |
| When two haploid cells fuse during fertilization... | a diploid zygote with two full sets of chromosomes is formed |
| Human genome consists of ___ chromosomes arranged in ___ pairs | 46;23 |
| Human diploid cells contain 22 pairs of ____________, chromosomes that are the same for both sexes | autosomes |
| Diploid cells also contain one pair of | sex chromosomes |
| Each autosome is a member of a __________ pair of chromosomes | homologous pair |
| Members of a homologous pair have the same genes, but might have different versions (_______) of those genes | alleles |
| Diploid cells therefore have two alleles for each gene. These alleles.... | might be identical (gene A) or different (gene B) |
| Each gene’s ______ is its location on a chromosome | locus |
| _____________ used pea plants to study heredity. He discovered the _______________________ | Gregor Mendel; basic principles of genetics |
| Self-fertilization | pollen from a male flower plant fertilize the female part of the same plant |
| Cross-fertilization | pollen from a male flower plant fertilize the female part of another plant |
| True-breeding | plants produce offspring identical to themselves |
| Dominant alleles | exert their effects whenever they are present |
| recessive allele | one whose effect is masked if a dominant allele is also present |
| Recessive alleles usually encode | nonfunctional proteins |
| Only when both alleles are recessive, | the lack of a functional protein will be noticeable |
| YY | both alleles are dominant |
| Yy | two different alleles contributed by each parent |
| yy | both alleles are recessive |
| Wild-type | the most common allele, or genotype or phenotype in a population |
| Mutant | an allele, a genotype or phenotype resulting from a mutation in a gene |
| The genotype confers: | a phenotype, or observable characteristic |
| Homozygous dominant individuals | have two dominant alleles for a gene |
| Homozygous recessive | individuals have two recessive alleles |
| Heterozygous individuals | have one dominant and one recessive allele |
| Punnett square | uses the genotypes of the parents to reveal which alleles the offspring may inherit |
| monohybrid cross | both parents are heterozygous |
| If one gamete carries a dominant allele and the other carries a recessive allele, the offspring will be... | heterozygous |
| Linkage maps are | diagrams of gene order and spacing on chromosomes |
| Incomplete dominance: | heterozygote has a phenotype that is intermediate between those of the two homozygotes |
| Codominance: | two different alleles are fully expressed in the phenotype |
| Pleiotropy: | a single gene has multiple effects on a phenotype |
| In codominance... | more than one allele encodes a functional protein |
| In pleiotropy... | one gene has multiple effects on the phenotype |
| SRY gene on the Y chromosome determine... | the male phenotype |
| Y chromosome carries fewer than | 100 genes |
| X chromosome carries more than | 1000 genes |
| Duchenne muscular dystrophy | Rapid muscle degeneration early in life |
| Fragile X syndrome | Most common form of inherited mental retardation |
| Hemophilia A | Uncontrolled bleeding, easy bruising |
| Rett syndrome | Severe developmental disorders. Almost all affected children are female; affected male embryos cease development before birth |
| Ethology | the scientific study of animal behavior |
| innate behavior | is instinctive, predictable and does not require experience |
| learned behavior | requires previous experiences |
| Reflex | (an example of an innate behavior) is instantaneous automatic response to a stimulus; regulated by the autonomic nervous system |
| Examples of how learning affects behavior include: | • Imprinting • Habituation • Associative learning • Observational learning • Cognition |
| During imprinting... | an early life experience affects behavior throughout life |
| Habituation | is learning not to respond to a stimulus |
| associative learning | an animal learns the relationship between two events |
| Associative learning includes: | operant conditioning and classical conditioning |
| operant conditioning | an animal learns to associate a behavior (sitting on command) with its consequences (treat!) |
| classical conditioning | a behavior is modified by the pairing of two stimuli |
| observational learning | an individual watches what another does and then imitates the behavior |
| Animal cognition extends to: | reasoning, problem solving, tool use, and symbolic communication |
| Keys to improving survival include: | • predator avoidance • finding resources or shelter • balancing foraging effort with the energy content of food |
| An animal might use several methods when finding its way such as: | • Path integration (ants) • True navigation (sea turtles and homing pigeons) • Piloting (beewolf wasps and homing pigeons) |
| True navigation requires: | an animal find its way using information other than that which it collected on its way to its current position |
| Piloting | animals use distant objects as landmarks when finding its way. This requires familiar scenes and does not work in unfamiliar terrain |
| foraging | searching for and collecting food |
| Optimal foraging theory | predicts that an animal’s food-finding strategy should maximize the amount of energy collected per unit time |
| social behaviors | are interactions among members of the same species |
| Social behaviors that promote reproductive success include: | courtship, mating, and parental care |
| Courtship has three functions: | • Species identification (displays are species-specific) • Stimulation of hormonal changes in participants (e.g., initiating ovulation in females) • Mate quality assessment |
| Variation in the ability of individuals to obtain mates results in: | sexual selection |
| sexual dimorphism | a situation in which the two sexes look very different |
| Intrasexual selection | the act of competing with members of one's own sex (for status, tangible resources, or directly for access to mates) |
| monogamous mating system: | neither the male nor the female has another sexual partner |
| polygamy | males or females have multiple partners |
| Animals increase their confidence in paternity in several ways: | • guarding a mate after copulation • inserting a plug that prevents other sperm from entering • scooping out sperm already in the female |
| society: | a group of individuals of the same species that is organized in a cooperative manner, extending beyond sexual and parental behavior |
| Advantages of group living: | • Finding food • Protection from environmental conditions • Protection from predators |
| Disadvantages of group living: | • Competition between group members • Predators may more easily detect groups • Disease could spread quickly through the group |
| Dominance hierarchies also decrease... | competition in groups by reducing the time, energy, and risk of fighting |
| altruistic | the behavior seems to lower one animal’s fitness for the good of others |
| reciprocal altruism | individuals help others at a cost to themselves if they are likely to be paid back later |
| mutualism | individuals help others at a cost to themselves if they are likely to be paid back immediately |
| Eusociality | a social structure that includes extensive division of labor, especially in reproduction |
| Evolution | is descent with modification—changes in heritable traits from generation to generation |
| Population | a group of interbreeding organisms of the same species |
| allele frequency refers to | how common is this allele in a population |
| allele frequency equation | (# of copies of an allele) / (total # of alleles for the same gene in the population) |
| gene pool | the entire collection of genes and alleles |
| natural selection | environmental factors cause the differential reproductive success of individuals with particular genotypes |
| adaptations | features that provide a selective advantage because they improve an organism’s ability to survive and reproduce |
| Fitness | describes an organism’s genetic contribution to the next generation. To have high fitness, an individual must reproduce |
| Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium | is the unlikely situation in which allele frequencies do not change between generations |
| Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium equation: p + q = 1; p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1 | p is the frequency of the dominant allele and q is the frequency of the recessive allele |
| Multiplying the frequency of the dominant allele by itself gives the | frequency of homozygous dominant individuals |
| Three modes of natural selection: | directional, disruptive, and stabilizing—are distinguished by their effects on the phenotypes in a population |
| directional selection | one phenotype is favored over another |
| disruptive selection | extreme phenotypes are favored over an intermediate phenotype |
| stabilizing selection | an intermediate phenotype is favored over the extreme phenotypes |
| heterozygote advantage | a heterozygote is favored over homozygotes |
| Sexual selection | a type of natural selection resulting from variation in the ability to obtain mates |
| Mutation | A change in the organism DNA sequence introduces a new allele to a population,. The new trait may be harmful, neutral or beneficial |
| Effect of mutation depends on how the mutation affects the... | sequence of the encoded protein |
| A mutation affects evolution only if.... | subsequent generations inherit it |
| Genetic drift | a change in allele frequencies that occurs purely by chance |
| founder effect: | only a few individuals establish a new population, the allele frequency might change and be different relative to the original population |
| Bottleneck effect: | occurs when a population size drops rapidly over a short period of time |
| Gene flow | moves alleles between populations. This might affect the allele frequencies in both populations (migration is a common way this occurs) |
| DNA technology | exploiting DNA manipulation for practical purposes (copying, sequencing, switching on and off, probing, and transferring) |
| Applications of DNA Technology | • Medicine • Forensic science • Agriculture |
| transgenic organism. | genome contains recombinant DNA; genetic material from another species |
| Restriction enzyme | molecular scissor = DNA-cutting enzyme |
| Ti Plasmid | Tumor inducing |
| DNA Sequencing was developed by | Frederick Sanger in 1977 |
| DNA Sequencing is | the process of determining the sequence of nucleotides (A, T, G, and C) in a fragment of DNA |
| Applications of DNA sequencing | – Compares nucleotide sequences to understand evolutionary relationships among species – Reveals protein structure |
| Embryonic stem cells (totipotent = entire) | give rise to all cell types in the body |
| Adult stem cells (pluripotent = many) | gives rise to limited subset of cell types |
| DNA probe | a single-stranded sequence that is complementary to a known region of DNA |
| Preimplantation genetic diagnosis | uses DNA probes to reduce the odds of having a child with a genetic disease |
Created by:
coralis
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