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Cumulative Exam pt
Bio 111 cumulative questions o.O
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| If you discover a stop codon in a paralogous gene and the orthologous gene codes for a protein, what do you know about the paralogous gene? What are these kinds of genes called? | Pseudogene |
| If a gene has 10 alleles, what is the maximum number of alleles that could occur in a diploid? | 2 |
| Descent w/ Modification | Pattern observed in living organisms generated by the accumulation of genetic changes passed from generation to generation, and on through speciation events. Could be a change from mutation, genetic drift, migration, or natural selection. |
| Natural selection | The mechanism that favors individuals in a population w/ traits that best match the environment over other individuals w/ different traits in the same pop'ln. Individuals w/ favorable traits will gradually increase in frequency in a pop'ln. |
| Descent w/ Modification vs. Natural selection | Descent w/ modification is a pattern generated by heritable changes among individuals in a pop'ln and natural selection is a mechanism that contributes to the pattern of Descent w/ modification |
| Proximate explanations | Those that examine the pathways that lead to a morphology, behavior, protein function, or other traits. They can be underlying genetic, biochemical, hormonal, or neural factors. They explain an adaptation but not the conditions that favored it to evolved. |
| Ultimate explanations | Examine questions at the level of their evolutionary significance ("why questions") that arise because natural selection has shaped the proximate mechanisms and behavioral abilities or morphological traits of individuals in the past. |
| Proximate vs. Ultimate explanations | Proximate questions focus on how an adaptation works, and ultimate focuses on why it evolved but now how it works. |
| Correlation | A measure that describes the size and direction of a relationship between two or more variables. The variables may or may no have a cause and effect relationship. |
| Causation | One event is the result of the occurrence of the other event; i.e. there is a causal relationship between the two events (=cause & effect) |
| Correlation vs. Causation | Both suggest a relationship among the variables, however correlation says nothing about how and why the relationship exists whereas causation means that if there is a change in 1 variable there will be a corresponding change in the second variable. |
| Hybridization | When two species come into contact and successfully reproduce the offspring are called hybrids. This can lead to the 2 species merging into 1 species, if the genetic differences among the parental species aren't great. |
| Reinforcement | When species occur in sympatry and have accumulated enough differences that the hybrid offspring have lower fitness than offspring of a "normal" mating. |
| Hybridization vs. Reinforcement | Hybridization is the process that can be ongoing or temporally brief when 2 species mate, and reinforcement occurs when hybridization occurs and hybrid offspring have reduced fitness. Reinforcement leads to prezygotic isolating mechanisms. |
| If the mutation eventually reaches 100% frequency as a result of random genetic drift, in which population will this occur more rapidly? Why? | Species A: drift causes larger generation to generation changes in allele frequency in smaller species |
| If both species have the same mutation rate (µ) to selectively neutral alleles (s= 0), how will the long-term rate of molecular evolution differ between these two species for the Acp3 gene? | They will have the same rate of molecular evolution |
| Honeybee workers do not have ovaries and cannot reproduce. Does that mean these individuals have a fitness of 0 even though they cooperate with 60,000 other colony members? | Fitness is the reproductive success of an individual, usually represented by the # of offspring produced and their survival. They don't have 0 fitness as they can garner reproductive success thru their cooperation, allowing the offspring to survive. |
| If the red-eye is dominant to white eyes in fruitflies and eye color is sex-linked, what would be the result among the sons and daughters of crossing a heterozygous female w/ a red-eyed male? | Sons will be 50% red-eyed and 50% white-eyed, Daughters will all be red-eyed |
| If DNA polymerase were perfect, such that they never introduced an incorrect base, would mutations still occur? | Yes, because mutations from other sources would occur. |
| Explain the following statement: Natural Selection is direct and purposeful, but not progressive. | Isn't progressive bc it relies on the previous generation to act on/select for advantages. Directed bc it favors phenotypic traits that prove to be advantageous to the individ'l in the given environment. Purposeful bc it selects against traits to inc.fit. |
| AA, AA, Aa, Aa, Aa, Aa, aa, aa, aa, aa Based on the sample, what is the observed frequency of allele a?The observed frequency of allele A? | a=12/20, A=8/20 |
| What are the observed frequencies of genotypes aa, Aa, and AA? | AA= 2/10, Aa=4/10, aa=4/10 |
| After one generation of random mating, what would be the Hardy-Weinberg expectations for the frequencies of genotypes aa, aA, and AA? | P^2+2pq+q^2=(0.4)^2+2(0.4)(0.6)+(0.6)^2=1 aa=(0.6)^2=.36, Aa=2(0.4)(0.6)=0.48, AA=(0.4)^2=0.16 |
| Morphological species concept | The morphological species concept states that a species is defined by a recognizable anatomical (=morphological) feature. |
| Explain why the mutation rates are basically the same for synonymous and nonsynonymous substitutions but synonymous mutations accumulate over time at a higher rate than nonsynonymous substitutions do? | Because synonymous substitutions do not change the amino acid and therefore do not change the protein, selection has no phenotype to act on. Selection can only act on a phenotype. |
| Explain why intrasexual selection and intersexual selection occur in sexual species | Intersexual selection, females select for males based on their traits the females find advantageous since females have higher sexual fitness. Intrasexual selection: Males compete w/ other males for females, due to their lessened sexual fitness. |
| Why does reciprocal altruism apply to blood meal sharing in vampire bats rather than kin selection? | bc it doesn't involve the success of relatives passing on their genetic material in particular, but the cooperation between vamp bats that share the meal w/ the expectation that other bats will do the same for them in the future for both parties success |
| "The Mona Lisa is the greatest painting in the history of humans." Is this a scientific statement? Explain your answer. | Scientific statements are falsifiable and this statement can't be falsified. Hence, it isn't a scientific statement. |
| Binary Fission | Asexual reproduction in bacteria that results in two exact copies of daughter cells being produced from the parent cell along w/ the genetic material. |
| Bacterial Conjugation | Transfer of genetic material by direct cell-to-cell contact of formation of a bridge-like connection between bacterial cells. |
| Binary Fission vs. Bacterial Conjugation | Fission is a form of reproduction that increases # of cells but doesn't change genetic composition of daughter cells, and conjugation doesn't increase # of cells but does change the genetic composition of the recipient cell. |
| Microbiome | The community of microorganisms that live in a particular habitat, such as a plant leaf or mouth of a human. |
| Archaea | A group of unicellular prokaryotes that differ from Bacteria by features of their cell membrane, genomes, and enzymes involved in transcription and translation. |
| Microbiome vs. Archaea | Archaea is a monophyletic group of related organisms and microbiome is a group that interact but can be from many unrelated groups. |
| Coelom | Open cavity in an animal between the gut and the outer part of the body that doesn't have an external opening. |
| Mesohyl | The gelatinous non-living matrix between the living inner and outer layers of a sponge. |
| Coelom vs. Mesohyl | Both coelom and mesohyl enable animals to increase body size w/o metabolic cost of maintaining living tissues/cells, but one is an open cavity (coelom) and the other is a semi-solid non-living substance (mesohyl). |
| Pharyngeal gill slits | In early members of the Chordata, are external openings connected internally to the pharynx thru which H2O is circulated. Later in chordate evolution it became a part of the jaw. |
| Filter Feeding | A way of straining food particles from the H2O column. |
| Pharyngeal gill slits vs. Filter feeding | Early members of the Chordata filter feed by drawing H2O thru their pharyngeal gill slits but many, many animal groups have various adaptation for filter feeding. |
| Why are earthquakes very uncommon and there are no volcanoes along the east coast of North America? | Eastern edge of N.A. is far from the edge of a tectonic plate thus there's no energy to create volcanoes or generate earthquakes. Nearest plate edge is mid-Atlantic ridge which is a divergent fault zone. Convergent plates form earthquakes and volcanoes. |
| HIV patient question | Any set of relationships in which the victim isn't embedded in the patient tree, i.e. as sister groups. |
| Assume you're taking this exam in the year 2000--if the half-life of carbon 14 is 5730 yrs, what will the concentration of carbon 14 be in the atmosphere in the year 7500? (graph) | 50 or so parts per thousand |
| Long-term endosymbionts have among the smallest genomes observed in nature. What is the fate of most of the endosymbionts' genes? | Most end up in the host nuclear genome. Some are lost entirely because they are redundant. |
| Explain why the fossil record of Arthropoda, especially Ecdysozoa, is so much more complete than that of Ctenophora. | The hard exoskeleton of Ecdysozoa favors their preservation. Ctenophora (comb jellies), on the other hand, have no hard skeletal parts and rarely remain intact long enough to form a fossil. |
| Based on the data below (graph), approximately when did the ozone layer form? | Approximately 2.6 mya |
| Where did living organisms occur before formation of the ozone layer (if there were any)? | Oceans (aquatic) |
| Parsimony (concept used in question 13 of Exam 2) | The principle that the simplest explanation that is consistent w/ the data or facts is preferred or likely to be correct. |
| Explain why lateral gene transfer of 16S RNA is very unlikely to occur? | 16S RNA plays such a critical role in translation in all organisms, suggesting that lateral transfer of rRNA among distantly related species is extremely unlikely. |
| Name one synapomorphy for each of the following groups: Monotremata, Marsupial, and Mammals | Monotremata: Lay eggs Marsupial: Babies develop in a pouch Mammals: Hair, milk-producing glands in the female |
| In the apicoplexan below, how many genomes are there? where is each one? | Genomes: 3 Where? Apicoplast, nucleus, mitochondria |
| Why is the Cambrian an important period for researchers interested in animal evolution? | The majority of animal phyla and body types originated during the Cambrian. |
| Why does a filter feeding organism need to break, or induce turbulent flow, in the boundary layer? | The boundary layer is a zone of non-moving H2O; H2O currents can deliver a steady supply of food but an animal that can't break thru the boundary layer won't be able to get food. Thus, they must become large enough to break the boundary layer to get food |
| Why is experimentation the only way to study the first steps in the origin of life? | The steps before and just after the origin of life were before the LUCA, so we can't infer the characteristics of the organisms earlier w/ phylogenetic inference. further, the first proto-cells left no fossil record. |
| How many different distinct antibodies are possible after somatic recombination? Heavy chain: V: 65 fragments D: 27 fragments J: 6 fragments Light chain: V: 40 fragments J: 5 fragments | (65x27x6) (40x5) |
| What cells have these receptors? (antibody receptors) | B Cells |
| What kind of gene fragment shown above binds to the epitope of the antigen? | Variable region |
| All hair cells in the vertebrate ear are exactly the same, yet some detect different frequencies than others. Explain how this occurs. | Depends on location of cochlea;The cochlea tapers and different frequencies of sound stimulate hair cells depending on the diameter of the cochlea;high frequencies stimulate hair cells in wide part and low frequencies stimulate cells in narrow part. |
| What important physical barrier to pathogens is found in both terrestrial plants and land-dwelling vertebrates? | There is an outermost layer of wax that's impenetrable on the skin of vertebrates and covering the epidermis of plants. |
| Is the primate below arboreal or bipedal? Describe one morphological feature in the figure below that supports below that supports your hypothesis. | Arboreal - the phalanges are clearly curved or arched. In bipedal organisms the phalanges are flat. |
| Clonal deletion | Occurs when naive B and T cells are tested against self "antigens" and bind tightly. If not deleted or killed by apoptosis, these would result in the immune system attacking the organism they are supposed to protect (=self). |
| Clonal selection | Occurs when an antigen is introduced to a series of B cells and the B cell with the binding site that binds most tightly to the epitope on the antigen proliferates massively to mount a response to attack by the antigen. |
| Clonal deletion vs. selection | Both are involved in fine tuning of the immune system, but clonal deletion prevents autoimmune or immunodeficiencies from occurring, and clonal selection is the step in the immune response that suppresses attack & makes memory cells for any future attack. |
| Plasmodesmata | Opening in plant cell walls that enable tissues to communicate and coordinate their activities. |
| Vacuole | A membrane-bound vesicle in plant cells that's filled with H2O, waste, or constitutive defense products like resin. Also play structural role. |
| Plasmodesmata vs. Vacuole | Plasmodesmata enable adjacent plant cells to respond in a coordinate fashion to the environment and vacuoles are intracellular structures important for storage and maintaining hydrostatic pressure with the cell. |
| Opponent Process Theory of Vision | Shows that color receptors are paired such that one member of the pair is activated when the other member of the pair is suppressed. Shown by staring at a color and then looking at a white screen and seeing afterimage (suppressed color). |
| Trichromatic Theory of Vision | Explain how inputs from the 3 photoreceptor types are blended in the brain to make intermediate colors and hues. |
| Trichromatic theory vs Opponent Process theory | These theories aren't mutually exclusive but instead explain how different parts of the vertebrate visual system process info about color. |
| Hemolymph | Fluid found in animals w/ open circulatory systems and is where immune functions, waste removal and respiration occurs (except in insects where respiration occurs in the tracheal system and not the hemolymph) |
| Blood | Found in animals w/ closed circulatory systems and is also important in circulating oxygen, removing waste and immune function. |
| Hemolymph vs. Blood | Blood never comes in direct contact w/ organ and tissue cells whereas hemolymph does come into direct contact w/ the organ and tissue cells. |
| What are 2 reasons CAM photosynthesis is favored in hot and dry environments? | CAM plants can close their stomata in the daytime to avoid losing too much H2O. C4 photosynthesis occurs during the day using the CO2 bound by PEP. This strategy also eliminates photorespiration from occurring. |
| Most rodents and nocturnal mammals have retinas composed of what photoreceptor type? | Rods |
| Are antibiotics an immune response for fungi? Explain. | Yes, fungi are attacked by bacteria just like probably all living organisms. As a result, they've evolved defense mechanisms to eliminate fungal pathogens and attack them. |
| What plant tissue feeds the majority of humanity (be specific)? | Endosperm |
| What is the ploidy of endosperm tissue? | Triploid |
| What is the source of the genomes in endosperm tissue? | 2 genomes are maternal and one comes from the pollen grain (paternal) |
| Why do the data below contradict the theory that Homo Sapiens dominate the planet bc of large brain size? Explain your reasoning. (graph of homo erectus brain size increasing) | Data = changes in cranial vol. from origin to extinction of homo erectus, a close relative of homo sapiens. Mean C.C. of homo erectus when it went extinct was greater than present homo sapiens. Thus, there's been little change in H.S. C.C., no evidence. |
| Why is the rate of O2 consumption as speed increases different for the human and fish? | Difference due to viscosities of air and H2O. H2O much more viscous than air, so metabolic rate of fish increases much faster as it increases swimming speed than metabolic rate of human as it runs faster. |
| Label on the diagram below where meiosis occurs and the multicelluar haploid and multicellular diploid stages are. | sporophyte on bottom, gametophyte on top, diploid right corner bubble, meiosis left corner line. |
| What are 3 structures in the cells below that aren't found in animal cells? (Plant cell image) | Chloroplast, cell wall, plasmodesmata, vacuole |
| Describe what's occurring as ventricular volume and pressure change in the figure below (blood pressure diagram). | Ventricles are lower heart chambers & when they contract, vol. of ventricular chamber decreases & internal pressure inc. Contraction pushes blood into circ. syst. When they relax, vol. inc. and press. dec. This is when blood fills ventricles. |
| What are two physical properties of water which enable some fish, amphibians, and turtles to overwinter in Rochester at the bottom of lakes? | When water freezes, it becomes lighter and floats to the surface. Bottom of lake doesn't freeze in most lakes. Colder water, more O2. Fish, amph., and turtles are cold-blooded, metabolism is reduced and can survive in winter at bottom with enough O2. |
| What are 2 products that plants gain by associating w/ arbuscular mycorrhizae? | Fungi absorb nutrients, especially phosphorous, and greatly increase the surface area of the root system enabling it to absorb more water. |
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cecebetts
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