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Biology Exam #3
Units 9, 11, 12, 14
| What are the 6 functions of the urinary system? | 1. Excretion of metabolic wastes. 2. Maitenance of the water-salt balance. 3. Maitenance of the acid-base balance. 4. Horomone secretion: renin and EPO. 5. Reabsorb filtered nutrients and synthesize vitamin D (calcium). 6. Filter blood and form urine |
| What are the organs of the urinary system? What are their functions? | 1. 2 Kidneys: where urine is formed. 2. 2 ureters: tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. 3. bladder: expandable organ that stores urine until it leaves the body. 4. urethra: carries urine from bladder to the toilet. |
| Wht are nitrogenous waste products? | 1. urea: breakdown of amino acids in the liver. 2. uric acid: breakdown of nucleotides. 3. creatinine: muscle cells made by the breakdown of phosphate. |
| What is renin, it's function and how is it relaated to aldosterone? | Renin increases low blood pressure and helps to maintain the water-salt balance. Increases sodium absorption. Renin to angiotensin to aldostorone(adrenal glands). |
| Why do we need vitamin D? | Vitamin D promotes calcium absorption from the digestive tract. |
| How is the urinary bladder controlled? | Two sphincters keep it closed. They are both voluntary and involuntary. |
| What are the major regions of the kidneys? | 1. renal cortex 2. renal medulla (renal pyramid) 3. renal pelvis 4. nephrons 5. minor and major calyces |
| What are nephrons? | Functional units of the kidneys that produces urine. Over a million in each kidney. Glomerulous: bundle of capillaries (and capsule). |
| What is the anatomy of a nephron? | 1. renal corpuscle (gomerulus and capsules) 2. proximal convoluted tubule 3. loop of Henle 4. distal convoluted tubule |
| What is th glomerulus and it's importance? | A knot of capillaries inside the glomerular capsule where pores produce a blood filtrate and form urine. |
| What is glomerular filtrate? | GFR is the system that asseses kidney function. |
| What is tubular secretion? | Tubular secretion is the process from capillaries (blood) to tubules (urine). |
| What is tubular reabsorption? | Tubular reabsorption is the process from tubules (urine) to capillaries (blood). |
| How much water is filtered a day on average? Reabsorbed? Urine formed? | Filtered: 200 liters per day Reabsorbed: 150-180 liters per day Pee 1.5-2 liters per day |
| What is ADH? How does alcohol affect it? | ADH is the anti-dioretic hormone secreted by the pituitary gland. Alcohol inhibits ADH, water reabsorption causes you to pee faster. |
| How is breathing rate related to blood pH? | pH is too low=acidosis: respiration rate increases, decreased blood CO2, decreased carbonic acid. Increased pH (7.1-7.3) pH is too high=alkalosis: respiration rate decreases, increased blood CO2, increased carbonic acid. Decreased pH (7.5-7.8) |
| What should blood pH be at? | Blood pH=7.4 |
| How can kidney faulure be treated? | Hemodialysis: artificial kidney machine to add/subtract substances to blood as needed. Kidney replacement |
| End of Unit 11 | End of Unit 11 |
| What is cocaine? | stimulant |
| What is alcohol? | depressant |
| What is a threshold? | Voltage needed for action potential to fire. |
| Excitatory vs Inhibitory neurons | Excitatory: Reaching the threshold Inhibitory: Not reaching the threshold |
| What are the parts of the brain stem? | 1. Midbrain: relay station between the cerebrum and spinal cord. 2. Pons: Bridge between the cerebellum and the CNS 3. Medulla Oblongata: contains reflex centers for regulating breathing, hearbeat and blood pressure. |
| What are neurotransmitters and where are they stored? | Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that send messages from one neuron to another. They are stored in the synaptic vessels in axon terminals. |
| What happens during an action potential? | 1. Resting potential: negative charge inside cell membrane is polarized. Higher sodium outside of the cell, higher potassium inside of the cell. 2. Depolarization: sodium channels open, sodium enters cell, more positive. |
| Steps 3 and 4 of action potentials. | 3. Repolaarization: potassium channel opens, more negative cell, potassium leaves cell, through diffusion. 4. Hyperpolarization: more potassium leaves after resting potential is met, more negative than resting potential voltage. Corrected: Na+, K+ pump. |
| Action potential | All or nothing event. |
| What is the largest part of the brain? | The cerebrum, divided into the 4 lobes. |
| How many pairs of cranial nerves? | 12 pairs. impulses to and from the brain. |
| How many pairs of spinal nerves? | 31 pairs. impulses to and from the spinal cord |
| What is the somatic division of the PNS? | Skeletal muscle, voluntary. |
| What are some types of neurotransmitters? | Acetylcholine, dopamine, GABA, serotonin, norepinephrine, epinephrine. |
| What is heroin? | depressant |
| What is multiple sclerosis? | Slows down nerve impulses/communication (muscle movement). Affects myelin sheath of myelinated axons. |
| What is integration? | Summoning of excitatory and inhibitory signals by a neuron. Determins AP firing and whether or not the threshold is met. |
| What. is white brain matter? | Contains myelinated axons, made of lipids |
| What is grey brain matter? | Cell bodies and nonmyelinated fibers |
| What are the lobes? | 1. frontal lobe: motor/thought 2. Temporal lobe: auditory/smell/speech 3. Parietal lobe: somatosensory/taste 4. Occipital: visual area |
| Sympathetic vs Parasympathetic | Sympathetic: fight or flight Para: rest state |
| What is the synaptic cleft? | Gap between neurons |
| How does the sodium/potassium pump work? What is it? | Example of active transport. Using ATP sodium is pumped out of cell against concentration gradient while potassium is pumped into cell against the concentration gradient. Helps to restore the resting potential. |
| What are the 4 major regions of the brain? | 1. cerebrum (largest) 2. diencephalon 3. cerebellum 4. brain stem |
| End of Unit 14 | End of Unit 14 |
| What are the main steps of digestion? | 1. Ingestion: bringing foods and liquids into your mouth. 2. Digestion: breaking down macromolecules into subunits, need for enzymes. 3. Movement: GI tract to anus, need paristalsis(smooth muscle contractions) |
| Continuing the steps of digestion. | 4. Absorption: small intestine, energy, amino acids to make proteins. 5. Elimination: get rid of wastes. |
| What is the pathway of food? | Mouth to pharynx to esophagus to stomach to small intestine to large intestine to rectum to anus |
| What is mechanical digestion? | Using teeth to break food apart and mixing in the stomach. |
| What is chemical digestion? | Enzymes break down food for specific macromolecules. |
| Teeth? | Involved in mechanical digestion. |
| Tongue? | Pushes bolus towards the pharynx and esophagus. |
| Esophagus? | Sliding board for food and drink, food to stomach, squeezing of paristalsis. |
| What is the bolus? | Food and saliva |
| What is the chyme? | Food stuff mixed with gastric juices in the stomach, hydrocloric acid. |
| What is the epiglottis? | Cartilinagious flap that covers the glottis, larynx, trachea preventing food and liquids from entering the lungs. |
| What is peristalsis? | Smooth muscle contractions. |
| Enzymes, what is the salivary amylase? | Breakdown of carbs and starch from the parotid gland. |
| Enzymes, what is the pancreatic amylase? | Continues carb breakdown from the pancreas. |
| Enzymes, what is pepsin? | Breakdown of protein from the stomach. |
| Enzymes, what is trypsin? | Breakdown of protein from the pancreas. |
| Enzymes, what is the pancreatic lipase? | Continues lipid and fat breakdown, needs BILE, from the pancreas. |
| What are the stomach functions? | Food stuff becomes chyme when mixed with hydrochloric acid, protein digestion begins with pepsin, mechanical digestion (mixing of stomach). |
| What are the small intestine function? | Completion of chemical digestion, absorption of nutrients, monomers like amino acids, glucose, fatty acids. |
| What are the large intestine functions? | Reabsorption of water and the forming of feces. |
| What is the purpose of the pharynx? | Passageway for both food and air. |
| What are the 3 accessory organs and digestive functions of each? | 1. liver: make bile 2. gall bladder: store bile 3. pancreas: produce and secrete digestive enzymes |
| What is BMI? | Body mass index. Measures height to weight ratio of fat content. |
| What is obesity and why is it a problem? | It causes an increase in a number of health problems. Became a problem in America because we have easy access/cheap access to unhealthy foods, large portion sizes and lack of exercise. |
| End of Unit 9 | End of Unit 9 |
| What is the axial skeleton? | Skull, ribs, sternum and vertebral column |
| What is the appendicular skeleton? | 1. Pectoral girdle (scapula and clavicle)/upper limbs 2. Pelvic girdle (coxal bone)/lower limbs |
| What are the functions of the skeletal system? | Supports the body, protects the soft body parts, produces blood cells, stores minerals and fat, allows movement. |
| What are the different types of vertebrae? | We have 33 different vertebrae. 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacrum and 4 coccyx |
| Where are the different types of vertebrae located? | Cervical (head) Thoracic (ribs) Lumbar (back) Sacrum (pelvic) Coccyx (tailbone) |
| What are some example of long bones? | Tibia, fibula, femur, humerus, radius, ulna |
| What type of cartilage is at the ends of long bones? | Hyaline cartilage |
| Difference between the axial and appendicular skeleton? | Axial: 80 bones, head, neck, back, chest. Appendicular: 126 bones, everything else. |
| How many pairs of ribs do we have? | 12 pairs |
| What is the vertebrae associated with the ribs? | Thoracic vertebrae |
| Where is the collarbone located? | Appendicular skeleton |
| Wrist bones? | carpals |
| Ankle bones? | Tarsals |
| What are the 4 types of bone cells and the functions of each? | 1. osteoblasts: bone forming cells 2. osteocytes: bone structure 3. osteoclasts: bone absorbing 4. chondroytes: cartilage forming |
| What is PTH and the function? | Parathyroid hormone that increases blood calcium by accelerating bone recycling. |
| What is the importance of vitamin d? | It helps in calcium absorption. |
| What are the 4 steps of bone fracture repair? | 1. hematoma: blood clot forms between broken bones (6-8 hours) 2. fibro callus: cartilage callus, rod/screws to hold (3 weeks) 3. bony callus: cartilage turns to bone, takes 3-4 months 4. bone remodeling: old tissue is replaced by new tissue |
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