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BIOL1202 exam3
chapters 28 thru 33
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| clade Excavata (monophyletic) | · characterized by cytoskeleton, some have excavated feeding groove on one side of body · three monophyletic groups: diplomonads, parabasilids, euglenozoans |
| Excavata: diplomonads and parabasilids | · lack plastids and have modified mitochondria, most anaerobic |
| Excavata: diplomonads | · reduced mitochondria - mitosomes, get energy from anaerobic biochemical pathways · two equal-sized nuclei, many flagella · often parasites (Giardia intestinalis) |
| Excavata: parabasilids | · reduced mitochondria - hydrogenosomes, get some energy anaerobically · includes ST parasite Trichomonas vaginalis |
| Excavata: euglenozoans | · includes predatory heterotrophs, photosynthetic autotrophs, mixotrophs, parasites · specifically - kinetoplastids and euglenids · main feature: spiral, crystalline rod within flagella |
| Excavata: euglenozoans - kinetoplastids | · single mitochondrion with organized mass of DNA - kinetoplast · free-living species consume prokaryotes in nearly every environment · trypanosomes: parasitic on plants, animals, other protists, ex. African sleeping sickness, Chagas' disease |
| Excavata: euglenozoans - euglenids | · one or two flagella emerging from pocket at end of cell · some are mixotrophs - can be autotrophic or heteroptrophic depending on environment |
| supergroup SAR (monophyletic) | · stramenopiles, alveolates, rhizarians · controversial supergroup |
| SAR: stramenopiles | · some of the most important photosynthetic organisms on Earth - diatoms, golden algae, brown algae · most have one "hairy" flagellum paired with one smooth one |
| SAR: stramenopiles - diatoms | · unicellular algae with a two-part, glass-like cell wall of silicon dioxide · highly diverse, major component of phytoplankton · oceanic diatom bloom -> dead individuals bring atmospheric carbon to ocean floor |
| SAR: stramenopiles - brown algae | · largest and most complex algae, all multicellular, most marine, commonly called seaweeds (similar to plants but lack true tissues) · rootlike holdfast, stemlike stipe, leaflike blades, some have floats to keep photosynthetic components near surface |
| SAR: alveolates | · membrane-enclosed alveoli just under plasma membrane · includes dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, ciliates |
| SAR: alveolates - dinoflagellates | · two flagella, each cell reinforced by cellulose plates · abundant components of marine and freshwater phytoplankton · phototrophs, mixotrophs, and heterotrophs · cause toxic "red tides" |
| SAR: alveolates - apicomplexans | · most parasites of animals, some cause human disease - infectious sporozoites penetrate host cells · most have sexual and asexual life stages and need 2+ hosts · Plasmodium parasite requires mosquito and human host to complete life cycle - malaria |
| SAR: alveolates - ciliates | · use of cilia to move and feed, two types of nucleus, most prey on bacteria or other protists, ex. Paramecium · genetic variation from conjugation - two individuals exchange haploid micronuclei (sexual process) · reproduction - usually binary fission |
| SAR: rhizarians | · include radiolarians, forams · many species are amoebas - move and feed using pseudopodia - extensions of cell surface · differ from amoebas in other clades by threadlike pseudopodia |
| SAR: rhizarians - radiolarians | · delicate, symmetrical internal silica skeleton · pseudopodia reinforced by microtubules radiate from central body, cytoplasm covering microtubules engulf prey stuck on pseudopodia |
| SAR: rhizarians - foraminiferans | · porous shells called tests made of calcium carbonate · pseudopodia extend thru pores in test, some house photosynthetic algae within test · freshwater and marine · magnesium content in fossils used to estimate ocean temp. changes over time |
| supergroup Archaeplastida | · includes red algae, green algae, plants |
| Archaeplastida: red algae | · accessory pigment phycoerythrin masks green chlorophyll -> red color, varying from red in shallow water to almost black in deep water · usually multicellular, largest are seaweeds · most abundant large algae in tropical waters - farmed for carageenan |
| Archaeplastida: green algae | · grass-green chloroplasts, closely related to plants, most freshwater but many marine and some terrestrial · paraphyletic group: charophytes (closer to true plants) and chlorophytes · forms colonies and true multicellular bodies -> large size |
| supergroup Unikonta | · includes animals, fungi, some protists · two clades: amoebozoans and opisthokonts · unclear if unikonts separated from other eukaryotes earlier or later |
| Unikonta: amoebozoans | · amoebas with lobe/tube-shaped pseudopodia · includes slime molds, tubulinids, entamoebas |
| Unikonta: amoebozoans - slime molds | · resembles fungi due to convergent evolution · plasmodial: unicellular feeding mass (plasmodium) · cellular: motile stage, forms fruiting bodies |
| Unikonta: amoebozoans - tubulinids | · common in soil, freshwater, marine · most are heterotrophic and actively seek and consume bacteria and other protists |
| Unikonta: amoebozoans - entamoebas | · parasites of vertebrates and some invertebrates · Entamoeba histolytica causes amoebic dysentery |
| shared traits between plants and charophytes | · rings of cellulose-synthesizing proteins · structure of flagellated sperm · formation of phragmoplast |
| traits in plants but not charophytes | · alternation of generations · multicellular, dependent embryos · sporangia makes walled spores · multicellular gametangia · apical meristems |
| gametophyte vs. sporophyte | · gametophyte: haploid (n), produces haploid gametes thru mitosis · sporophyte: diploid (2n), makes haploid spores thru meiosis · spores give rise to gametophytes |
| archegonia vs. antheridia | · archegonia: female gametangia, produces a single, non-motile egg · antheridia: male gametangia, produces and releases sperm · each egg is fertilized within archegonium |
| bryophytes | · nonvascular plant · three phyla of small, herbaceous plant: hepatophyta (liverworts), bryophyta (mosses), anthocerophyta (hornworts) · earliest lineages to diverge from common ancestor of land plants |
| bryophytes - gametophyte | · dominant generation, but height constrained by lack of vascular tissue · rhizoids anchor them to substrate, produce flagellated sperm in antheridia and egg in each archegonium · may reporuduce asexually in time of drought |
| bryophytes - sporophyte | · never live independently from gametophyte · smallest and simplest sporophyte of all plants · consists of foot, seta (stalk), and sporangium (aka capsule) which makes spores |
| vascular plants | · life cycle with dominant sporophytes · vascular xylem and phloem · well-developed roots and leaves · spore-bearing leaves - sporophylls |
| vascular plants - xylem | · vascular tissue that conducts most of the water/minerals and has tube-shaped cells - tracheids · cells strengthened by lignin (structural support) |
| vascular plants - phloem | · vascular tissue with cells arranged into tubes that distribute sugars, amino acids, other organic products |
| vascular plants - leaves | · microphylls: small, single vein · megaphylls: large, branched vasculature |
| vascular plants - sporophylls and spore variations | · sporophylls: modified leaves and sporangia · sori: sporangia clusters on sporophyll undersides · strobili: cone-like groups of sporophylls · homosporous species -> one spore type -> bisexual gametophyte |
| vascular plants - sporophylls and spore variations | · heterosporous species -> megaspores -> female gametophytes · microspore -> male gametophyte |
| phylum Lycophyta: club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts | · small herbaceous plants · has vascular tissue, not true moss |
| phylum Monilophyta: ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns and relatives | · ferns are most widespread seedless vascular plants - more than 12,000 species · most diverse in tropics but also thrive in temperate forests |
| seed plants - seed | · consists of embryo, nutrients surrounded by protective coat |
| seed plant characteristics | · reduced gametophytes · heterospory · ovules (eggs) · pollen |
| seed plants - advantages of reduced gametophytes | · microscopic gametophytes develop in walls of spores retained within parent sporophyte - protects developing gametophyte from environmental stress and gets nutrients from parent sporophyte |
| seed plants - heterospory | · megasporangia produce megaspores -> female gametophyte · microsporangia produce microspores -> male gametophyte |
| seed plants - ovule | · consists of megasporangium, megaspore, and 1+ protective integuments · gymnosperms usually have one integument, angiosperm usually two |
| seed plants - pollen | · microspore develops into pollen grain - male gametophyte in pollen wall · germinated pollen grain -> pollen tube -> sperm to female gametophyte in ovule · pollen does not require water to travel |
| seed evolutionary advantages | · can remain dormant until conditions are good for germination · has food supply · can be transported long distances via wind or animals |
| gymnosperms | · most are cone-bearing conifers · mini gametophytes, produces dispersible seeds, transfers sperm to ovules thru pollen · male pollen cones: small, modified leaves (microsporophylls) · female ovulate cones: larger, both modified leaf and stem tissue |
| gymnosperms: phylum Cycadophyta | · large cones, pine-like leaves · unlike most seed plants, has flagellated sperm · thrived during Mesozoic but most of few surviving sp. are endangered |
| gymnosperms: phylum Ginkgophyta | · single species: Ginkgo biloba · like cycads, also has flagellated sperm high tolerance to air pollution, popular ornamental tree and supplement |
| gymnosperms: phylum Gnetophyta | · three genera: Gnetum, Ephedra (diet aid), Welwitschia · species vary in appearance, some tropical, others desert |
| gymnosperms: phylum Coniferophyta | · largest of all gymnosperms · most have woody cones, few have fleshy cones · most are evergreens and photosynthesize year-round · many commercial uses (flavoring gin) |
| angiosperms | · seed plants with reproductive structures - flowers and fruits · most widespread and diverse plants · single phylum - Anthophyta |
| angiosperms - flowers | · specialized for sexual reproduction · use insects, animals, wind, to pollinate · a specialized shoot with up to four types of modified leaves - flower organs · variable in shape/symmetry, size, color, odor |
| angiosperms - flower organs (non-repro) | · sepals: enclose and protect flower · petals: often brightly colored to attract pollinators unless wind is used |
| angiosperms - flower organs (repro) | · stamens: male repro organs, stalk called filament and sac called anther (microspore -> pollen) · carpels (pistil): female repro organs, ovary at base of style with sticky stigma at tip to receive pollen · ovary has ovule -> fertilization -> seed |
| angiosperms - fruits | · formed when ovary wall thickens and matures · protect seeds, aid in dispersal (wind, water, animals), may be fleshy or dry |
| angiosperm life cycle | · flower has both male and female structures - anthers have microsporangia (makes pollen), stigma has ovary at base (embryo sac within ovule) · pollen grain lands on stigma -> germination -> pollen tube of male gametophyte grows down to ovary |
| angiosperm diversity | · monocots: one cotyledon · dicots: two cotyledons · eudicots: most dicots · basal angiosperms: oldest lineages · magnoliids: share traits with basals but evolved later |
| angiosperms - basal angiosperms | · ~100 sp., three small lineages · water lilies, star anise, Amborella thrichopods |
| angiosperms - magnoliids | · woody or herbaceous · more closely related to monocots and eudicots than basal angiosperms |
| angiosperms - monocots | · about 1/4 of angiosperms, ~70,000 sp. · largest groups are orchids, grasses, palms |
| angiosperms - eudicots | · more than 2/3 of angiosperms, ~170,000 sp. · includes legumes, roses |
| key traits of fungi: heterotrophs | · use enzymes to break down absorbed complex molecules -> smaller organic compounds · decomposers: nutrients from non-living organic material · parasites: nutrients from live host · mutualists: nutrients from live host, reciprocates with host benefit |
| key traits of fungi: body structure | · most common body structures: multicellular filaments and single cells (yeasts) · body of filamentous fungi forms branched hyphae adapted for absorption with tubular cell wall with chitin |
| key traits of fungi: hyphae | · most have hyphae divided by septa, with pores for cell-cell organelle mvmt · coenocytic fungi lack septa, have continuous cytoplasmic mass with endless nuclei · hyphae form interwoven mass - mycelium, maximizes surface-volume ratio -> efficiency |
| fungi: specialized hyphae | · some are specialized for feeding on live animals · haustoria: extracts plant nutrients · arbuscules: used by mutualistic fungi to exchange nutrients with plant hosts |
| fungi: mycorrhizae | · mutually beneficial relationships between fungi and plant roots · deliver phosphate ions, minerals, ammonium to plants · most vascular plants have mycorrhizae, which colonize soils by dispersal of haploid spores |
| fungi: sexual reproduction | · fungal nuclei are normally haploid; hyphae can fuse from two different mating types and use pheromones to communicate type · plasmogamy (union of cytoplasm ) long time before karyogamy(nuclear fusion) -> diploid cells -> meiosis (genetic variation) |
| fungi: asexual reproduction | · molds produce haploid spores by mitosis and form visible mycelia · yeasts reproduce by budding; many molds and yeasts have no known sexual stage (deuteromycetes) |
| Opisthokont clade | · fungi, animals, protistan relatives · evolved from unicellular flagellated ancestor |
| phylum Chytridiomycota (chytrids - water molds) | · nearly every habitat including hydrothermal vents · decomposers, parasites, mutualists, most likely diverged early in fungal evolution · unique with zoospores - flagellated spores |
| phylum Zygomycota (zygomycetes) | · fast-growing molds, parasites, commensal symbionts · coenocytic septa, asexual sporangia produce haploid spores · named for sexual zygosporangia (when hyphae touch) - site of karyogamy then meiosis, survive unfavorable conditions |
| phylum Glomeromycota (glomeromycetes) | · nearly all species form arbuscular mycorrhizae |
| phylum Ascomycota (ascomycetes) | · nearly all habitats, include plant pathogens, decomposers, symbionts · produce sexual spores in asci in ascocarps - fruiting body, also repro asexually · "sac fungi" ranging in size from unicellular to elaborate cup fungi and morels, >25% form lichens |
| phylum Basidiomycota (basidiomycetes) | · includes common mushroom, puffball, shelf fungi · some form mycorrhizae, others are plant parasites, many wood decomposers · defined by transient diploid clublike life stage - basidium, also long-lived dikaryotic mycelium |
| fungi as mutualists | ·relationships with plants, algae, cyanobacteria, animals · absorb nutrients from host -> host benefit · very important in natural ecosystems and agriculture · plants harbor harmless fungi endophytes within leaves or other parts - usually ascomycetes |
| fungus-animal mutualisms | · digestive services - fungi help break down plant material in guts of cows, other grazers · many ant species keep fungi in "farms" to aid in digestion |
| fungi: lichens | · symbiotic association with photosynthetic microorganism (green algae or cyanobacteria) and fungus (usually ascomycete) · algae/cyanobacteria occupy inner layer between mass of fungal hyphae ·important on new rock/soil surfaces |
| fungi as parasites | · around 30% of fungal species are parasites/pathogens, usually of plants - some toxic to humans (ergotism) · animals much less susceptible than plants but chytrid B. dendrobatidis attacks amphibian species |
| fungi infecting humans | · mycosis: human fungal infection · ringworm, athletes foot · systemic mycoses spred thru body - ex. Coccidioidomycosis -> tuberculosis-like symptoms · some opportunistic - Candida albicans -> yeast infection |
| practical uses of fungi | · humans eat fungi and use others to make cheeses, alcohols, breads ·some used to make antibiotics (ascomycete Penicillum) · genetic research -> applications in biotechnology - yeast insulin-like growth factor for diabetes |
| animal characteristics | · heterotrophs that ingest food · multicellular eukaryotes · cells supported by structural proteins like collagen rather than cell walls · nervous and muscle tissues |
| animal reproduction and development | · sexual diploid stage dominates life cycle · zygote undergoes rapid cleavage after fertilization -> hollow blastula - gastrulation forms gastrula with 3D layers of tissue · most have at least one immature larval form · Hox genes regulate body form |
| fossils from Cambrian explosion characteristics | · bilaterally symmetrical · complete digestive tract · one-way digestive system |
| hypotheses for Cambrian explosion and Ediacaran decline | · new predator-prey relationships · rise in atmospheric oxygen · evolution of Hix gene complex, new microRNAs |
| Neopreoterozoic era (1 BYA - 541 MYA) | · early members of animal fossil record - Ediacaran biota dates back 560 MY · microscopic animal embryos found in Neoproterzoic rocks · evidence of predation |
| Paleozoic era (541 - 252 MYA) | · Cambrian explosion (535-525 MYA) is earliest appearance of major groups of living animals |
| Mesozoic era (252 - 66 MYA) | · coral reefs emerge - important marine ecological niches · ancestors of plesiosaurs - reptiles that returned to oceans · dinosaurs are dominant terrestrial vertebrates, mammals emerged, flowering plants and insects diversified |
| Cenozoic era (66 MYA - present) | · followed terrestrial and marine mass extinctions - large, non-flying dinosaurs and marine reptiles · mammals increased in size, explored vacated ecological niches · global cooling |
| radial symmetry | · think of a flowerpot · animals have a top/bottom but no left/right · animals often sessile (anchored) or planktonic (drifting/weakly swimming) |
| bilateral symmetry | · think of a shovel · animals have dorsal/ventral sides, left/right sides, anterior/posterior ends · many have sensory equipment (ex. brain) concentrated anterior · animals usually move actively, have central nervous system |
| tissues | · grouped specialized cells isolated from other tissues by membranous layers · three germ layers give rise to tissues and organs of animal embryo in development · ectoderm covers embryo's surface, endoderm lines developing digestive tube (archenteron) |
| tissues - development | · diploblastic animals have only ecto and endoderm layers (cnidarians and few others) · triploblastic animals have intermediate mesoderm (all bilaterally symmetrical animals) |
| body cavities | · true body cavity called coelom - derived from mesoderm · coelomates are animals with true coelom · pseudocoelomates have body cavity from meso and endoderm (endo uncovered) · acoelomates lack a body cavity |
| body cavity functions | · fluid cushions suspended organs · fluid acts as skeleton · cavity enables internal organs to grow/move independently from body wall |
| development - cleavage | · protostomes: cleavage spiral and determinate (cell fate already known) · deuterostomes: cleavage radial and indeterminate (each cell has capacity to become full embryo - twins and embryonic stem cells) |
| development - coelom formation | · protostomes: splitting pf solid masses of mesoderm -> coelom · deuterostomes: mesoderm buds from wall of archenteron -> coelom |
| development - blastopore | · blastopore forms during gastrulation and connects archenteron to exterior of gastrula · protostomes: blastopore -> mouth · deuterostomes: blastopore -> anus |
| bases for animal phylogenies | · whole-genome analysis · morphological traits · rRNA genes · Hox genes · protein-coding nuclear genes and mitochondrial genes |
| phylogeny -> relationships among living animals | · all animals share common ancestor · sponges are sister group to all other animals · clade Eumetozoa: "true animals", has tissues (not sponges) · most animal phyla are in clade Bilateria -> three major clades, all inverts, except Chordata |
| bilaterian clades | · deuterostomia, ecdysozoa, lophotrochozoa · deuterostomia: hemichordates (acorn worms), echinoderms (sea stars + relatives), chordates · ecdysozoa: external skeletons, shed thru ecdysis · lophotrochozoa: lophophore to feed, distinct throchophore larva |
| phylum Porifera | · sedentary, fresh and salt water, lack tissues, filter feeders thru cavity called spongocoel · several cell types (flagellated choanocytes, noncellular mesohyl layer, totipotent amoebocytes · most hermaphrodites |
| clade Eumetozoa | · all animals except sponges and few other groups - true tissues |
| phylum Cnidaria | · jellies, corals, hydra · single opening for mouth and anus, gastrovascular cavity · sessile polyp adheres to substrate, mobile medusa has bell-shaped body with mouth on underside · tentacles with cnidocytes - stinging cells · anthozoan - polyp only |
| phylum Platyhelminthes | · flatworms - many parasites (flukes, tapeworms), acoelomates, gastrovascular cavity · dorsoventrally flattened body shape for best osmosis/diffusion |
| phylum Mollusca | · snails and slugs, oysters and clams, octopi and squids · soft-bodied, most protected by calcium carbonate shell · similar body plans: muscular foot, soft/visceral mass, mantle · many have ciliated trocophore larval stage |
| phylum Annelida | · coelomates with bodies made of series of fused rings · polychaetes: usually in ocean, feathery gills (gas exchange and filter feeding) · oligochaetes: earthworms, can fragment asexually · hirudinea: leeches, suck host's blood |
| Ecdysozoans - nematodes | · found nealry everywhere · alimentary canal but no circulatory system, longitudinal body wall muscles -> thrashing motion · Trichinella spiralis - human parasite, can be acquired thru undercooked pork |
| Ecdysozoans - arthropods | · segmented body, hard exoskeleton, jointed appendages · body plan dates back to Cambrian explosion · covered by cuticle - exoskeleton made of layers of protein and polysaccharide chitin |
| arthropods - chelicerates | · clawlike feeding appendages · sea spiders, horseshoe crabs, ticks, mites, spiders |
| arthropods - myriapods | · millipedes (detritivores) and centipedes (carnivores) - all terrestrial |
| clade Pancrustacea | · insects and crustaceans together |
| Crustaceans | · all environments, isopods, decapods |
| Hexapoda (insects and relatives) | · every environment except rare in marine · wings - extension of cuticle · incomplete metamorphosis: nymphs resemble adults and molt to full size · complete metamorphosis: larva -> pupa -> adult |
| clade Deuterostomia | · Echinoderms - sea stars and relatives · Chordates - vertebrates |
| Echinoderms | · slow-moving or sessile, marine · thin epidermis covers endoskeleton (hard calcareous plates) · unique vascular system - hydraulic canals branching into tube feet for locomotion and feeding |
| phylum Chordata | · two basal groups of inverts along with verts · bilaterally symnmetrical coelomates with segmented bodies · did not evolve from echinoderms, have evolved separately for ~500MY |
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junoregan
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