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Bio PPT 1-6
Midterm 1
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Atom is composed of 3 smaller particles | protons, neutrons, and electrons |
| In an atom, the number of protons ________ the number of electrons | equal |
| Atomic number | how many protons are in each atom |
| Atomic weight | the average mass of all isotopes |
| Atomic weight - atomic number = | number of neutrons |
| Isotopes | have the same number of protons and electrons but different number of neutrons |
| The first electron shell can only hold | 2 electrons |
| The second electron shell can hold | up to 8 electrons |
| Valance shell | an electrons outermost shell |
| Electrons in the valence shell are | valence electrons |
| An atom with a completed valence shell is | nonreactive |
| Octet rule | except for shell 1, atoms tend to interact in such a way that they have 8 electrons in their outmost or valence shell |
| The shell ________ from the nucleus is important for chemical bonding | farthest |
| Covalent bonds | when atoms share electrons |
| Single Covalent Bonds | the result of two atoms sharing two electrons to form a chemical bond |
| Double Covalent Bonds | the bond that is formed by sharing of two-electron pairs between two atoms in which each atom contributes two electrons |
| Electronegativity | a measure of an atom's ability to attract electrons |
| Nonpolar Covalent Bond | electrons are shared equally between 2 atoms |
| Polar Covalent Bond | electrons are not shared equally between 2 atoms; shared electrons are closer to the nucleus of oxygen than hydrogen |
| Hydrogen Bond | an attraction between two atoms that already participate in other chemical bonds |
| The hydrogen bonds that hold water molecules together give water unique properties: | cohesion, adhesion, and good solvent properties |
| Cohesion | the tendency of water molecules to stick to one another |
| Adhesion | the tendency of water molecules to stick to other molecules |
| Together, ______________ allow water molecules to "climb" from a tree's roots to its highest leaves | cohesion and adhesion |
| Solvent | a liquid that is able to dissolve a solid |
| Water is a good ____ | solvent |
| Ionic Bonds | a chemical bond formed between ions of opposite charge; often called salts |
| Electron transfer between 2 atoms creates | ions |
| Ions | are charged atoms with more or fewer electrons than usual |
| Anion | negatively charged ion |
| Cation | positively charged ion |
| pH scale is based on the amount of ___ in a solution | H+ |
| Acidic solutions | have a low pH and a high H+ concentration (pH<7) |
| Neutral solutions | have equal H+ and OH concentration (pH=7) |
| Basic solutions | have a high pH and a low H+ concentration (pH>7); they have more OH ions than H+ ions |
| Organic Molecules | contains both carbon (C) and hydrogen (H) |
| Monomer | a single unit of a carbohydrate, protein, or nucleic acid |
| Monomers join to form ______ | polymers |
| Dehydration synthesis | an enzyme binds two monomers, releasing a water molecule |
| Hydrolysis | breaks polymers into monomers |
| Function of carbohydrates | source of energy |
| Monosaccharides | are the monomers of carbohydrates such as glucose, fructose, galactose |
| Disaccharides | dehydration synthesis binds two monosaccharides, forming a disaccharide such as sucrose, maltose, lactose. Hydrolysis separates disaccharides into monosaccharides. |
| Polysaccharides | are long chains of carbohydrates (ex: cellulose, starch, glycogen) |
| glucose + galactose = | lactose |
| glucose + glucose = | maltose |
| glucose + fructose = | sucrose |
| Amino acids | are molecules that combine to form proteins; monomers of protein |
| Amino acids are held together by ________ | peptide bonds |
| Nucleic acids | molecules that contain genetic information (DNA and RNA) |
| DNA | double-stranded or double helix (the template, original copy) |
| RNA | single-stranded (a copy of DNA, carries out order from DNA to synthesize proteins) |
| The functional unit of nucleic acids are | nucleotides (the monomers of nucleic acids) |
| Each nucleotide is made of: | -nitrogenous base -pentose sugar (ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA) -phosphate group |
| DNA has | A,G,C, & T |
| RNA has | A, G, C, & U |
| A forms 2 bonds with __ | T |
| C forms 3 bonds with __ | G |
| Lipids | fatty, waxy, or oily compounds that are soluble in organic solvents and insoluble in polar solvents such as water; they are hydrophobic and energy-rich (include: triglycerides (fats), phospholipids and sterols or steroids) |
| 3 fatty acids + glycerol ---dehydration synthesis--> | triglyceride |
| Nucleus | center of the cell; contains DNA |
| Cytoplasm | Space between the nucleus and the plasma membrane. It contains organelles. It is the site of most cellular activities |
| Cell wall | provides plants with structural support (plants not animals) |
| Chloroplast | site for photosynthesis (plants not animals) |
| Phospholipids | found in membrane, spontaneously form bilayers in water, has selective permeability meaning the phospholipid bilayer allows some substances to pass while excluding others |
| Phospholipid has 2 regions | -Hydrophilic polar head: attracted to water -Hydrophobic nonpolar tails: repel water |
| Besides phospholipids, cell membranes also contain proteins: | • Transport proteins • enzymes • Recognition proteins • Adhesion proteins • Receptor proteins |
| Cholesterol | present in the membrane; It increases membrane stability and restrain movement of phospholipids |
| Transport proteins | such as ion channels (for transport of ions) or transporters (for transport of glucose or other nutrients) |
| Enzymes | catalysts that speed up the rate of chemical reactions |
| Recognition proteins | serve as the cell’s identity |
| Adhesion proteins | held neighboring cells together |
| Receptor proteins | bind to specific substrate and induce signaling mechanism inside cells |
| Endomembrane system | consists of the nuclear envelope of the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum ER, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles and the cell membrane |
| Rough ER (RER) | a network of membranous sacs and tubules |
| Smooth ER (SER) | plays a role in detoxification of drugs in liver, and for calcium storage in skeletal and cardiac muscle cells. SER is also site from synthesis of phospholipids, fatty acids and steroid |
| Golgi apparatus | a stack of membrane sacs that acts as a “processing center.” |
| Lysosomes | where cellular digestion occurs; are bags of digestive enzymes; they digest ingested bacteria, viruses, and toxins; they degrade non-functional organelles and non-useful tissues |
| Peroxisomes | break down toxic substances that may enter the bloodstream. They also neutralize dangerous free radicals (abundant in liver and kidney cells) |
| Vacuoles | where cellular digestion occurs; helps regulate the size and water balance of plant cells (present in both animal and plant cells) |
| Ribosomes | granules containing protein and RNA, are site of protein synthesis |
| Free vs membrane-bound ribosomes | Free ribosomes synthesize soluble proteins whereas membrane-bound ribosomes synthesize proteins to be incorporated into membranes |
| Mitchondria | “powerhouses of animal cells”; they generate ATP or energy for the cell to sustain life and support cellular growth; contain their own DNA |
| Chloroplast | "powerhouses of plant cells"; organelles that use sunlight to produce food such as sugar for plant cell; that is plants perform photosynthesis |
| Cytoskeleton | a network of protein tracks and tubules. It is the “skeleton” of the cell. It has several functions: structural support, aids in cell division, organelle transport, and cell movement |
| 3 major components of the cytoskeleton | microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules |
| Microfilaments | found in actin and myosin of muscle cells. Are called neurofilaments in neurons |
| Intermediate filaments | found beneath the nuclear membrane and called “lamins”; act as “wires” to resist pulling forces on cell |
| Microtubules | found in cilia, flagella and mitotic spindle (mitotic spindle is part of cell division |
| Plant cells communicate through ________________ that are "tunneled" in a cell wall | plasmodesmata |
| Photosynthesis equation | Carbon dioxide + water + (light energy) → glucose + oxygen gas. |
| Metabolism = | anabolism + catabolism; includes all chemical reactions in cells |
| Endergonic reaction | input of energy; building complex molecules out of simple parts |
| Exergonic reaction | release of energy; breaking complex molecules into simple parts |
| Oxidation | the loss of electrons (this reaction releases energy) |
| Reduction | the gain of electrons (requires energy) |
| Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) | a nucleotide that temporarily stores energy |
| ATP = | three phosphates, adenine and ribose |
| The cell uses energy from reactions that release energy to _________ ATP | produce |
| The cell ______ the energy stored in ATP to power reactions that require energy input | uses |
| Substrate molecules _____ to the enzyme's active site, where the chemical reaction occurs | bind |
| Once the chemical reaction occurs, __________ molecules are released | product |
| Enzymes, as proteins: | will be denatured at high temperature; they lose their catalytic activity |
| Membrane transport | Solutes enter and exit cells by different methods, depending on two factors: concentration gradients and the chemical nature of the substance (polarity, charge, and size) |
| How cells transport substances across their membranes | passive transport (simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis), active transport, endocytosis/exocytosis |
| Passive transport | does not require input of energy |
| Simple diffusion | the movement of substance X from a region of high concentration in X to a region of low concentration in X—that is, they move down their concentration gradient |
| Osmosis | the diffusion of water from a region high in water concentration where solute is low to a region of low concentration in water and where solute is higher ----- means water moves down its concentration gradient, is also a type of passive transport |
| Isotonic Solution | equal solute concentrations inside and outside cell; cell retains its normal shape, it does not exhibit loss or gain of H2O |
| Hypotonic Solution | higher solute concentration inside cell; cell will gain water and swells ..if this continues, cell will burst or lyse (hemolysis) |
| Hypertonic Solution | lower solute concentration inside cell; cell will loose water and shrink or crenate |
| Facilitated Diffusion | is passive transport that requires membrane proteins or “carriers" |
| Active Transport | the cell uses energy and a protein channel or a transport protein to move ions or polar substances against their concentration gradient |
| Endocytosis | allows a cell to engulf fluids and large molecules and bring them into the cell |
| Exocytosis | uses vesicles to transport substances out of cells; docking process |
| Plants use ______________ to make sugars, like glucose | sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water |
| Chlorophyll a | the primary photosynthetic pigment in plants |
| Accessory pigments | absorb slightly different wavelengths than chlorophyll a |
| Leaves posses pores called _______ for exchange of gases with the atomospher | stomata |
| ______________ surround each stoma and control its opening and closing throughout the day | a pair of guard cells |
| Grana | stacks of thylakoids (found in chloroplast) |
| ______________ in the thylakoid membrane capture sunlight | pigment molecules |
| Photosynthesis occurs in 2 stages | 1. light reactions - occur in the thylakoid 2. carbon reactions or Calvin cycle - occur in the stroma |
| Light reactions | begin photosynthesis; they occur in the thylakoids and require water and light |
| Outcome/products of the light reactions | ATP, NADPH and Oxygen gas (O2) |
| Carbon Reactions or Calvin Cycle | occurs in the stroma; the chloroplast will use the ATP and NADPH produced in the light reaction; outcome = sugars |
| Plants use glucose generated for building polysaccharides such as ________________ | cellulose and starch |
| Cellulose in plants is used for | structural support and strength to make their leaves and stems stronger |
| Plants use starch as a | source of energy |
| Photosynthesis | carbon dioxide is taken in |
| Photorespiration | carbon dioxide is given off |
| In most plants (C3 plants), initial fixation of CO2 occurs via forming a | three-carbon compound, 3-phosphoglycerate (rice, wheat, and soybeans) |
| C4 plants first fix CO2 in a | a four-carbon compound oxaloacetate (sugarcane and corn) |
| CAM plants | open their stomata at night, incorporating CO2 and producing sugar (succulent plants) |
| Aerobic respiration | the process of using glucose and oxygen to produce ATP |
| Aerobic respiration equation | C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36ATP |
| Cellular repiration | inhaled oxygen is consumed, carbon dioxide produced as a byproduct is then exhaled |
| The cell uses ATP formed during cellular respiration to do _____ such as muscle contraction, membrane transport | work |
| _______ is the organ that consumes most of the energy in the human body | brain |
| Cellular respiration occurs in 3 stages | 1. Glycolysis (cytoplasm) 2. Krebs cycle (matrix of mitochondria) 3. Electron transport chain (inner membrane of mitochondria |
| Glycolysis | glucose is split into two three-carbon molecules of pyruvate; occurs outside of the mitochondrion in the cytoplasm |
| Krebs cycle is when | pyruvate molecules enter a mitochondrion, where they are disassembled into carbon dioxide |
| Glycolysis and the Krebs cycle transfer some of the potential energy in glucose to ATP. Meanwhile, electrons are transferred to ______________ | NADH and FADH2 |
| NADH and FADH2 unload electrons at the __________________, where the potential energy in the electrons is used to produce more ATP | electron transport chain |
| Glycolysis yields: | 2 ATP molecules and 2 electron-carrying NADH molecules |
| substrate-level phosphorylation | an enzyme transfers a phosphate from a molecule to ADP |
| Glucose -----> | 2 pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH |
| 2 pyruvate -----> | 2 Acetyl CoA + 2 CO2 + 2 NADH |
| Mitochondrial matrix | the space within the inner membrane; houses the reactions of the Krebs cycle or citric acid cycle |
| During the Krebs cycle: | the two acetyl CoA molecules are oxidized, yielding 4 CO2, 2 ATP, 6 NADH, and 2 FADH2 |
| NADH and FADH2 ______ their electrons to the electron transport chain, where energy from the electrons is used to produce many ATP | donate |
| Inside the mitochondria | 1 NADH = 3 ATP 1 FADH2 = 2 ATP |
| The electron transport chain produces _____ ATP | 34 |
| Cellular Respiration of One Glucose Yields ____ ATP | 36 |
| Amount of energy generated during electron transport chain: | 2 NADH = 2*3 = 6 ATP 2 NADH = 2*3 = 6 ATP 6 NADH = 6*3 = 18 ATP 2 FADH2 = 2*2 = 4 ATP Total = 6+6+18+4 = 34 ATP |
| In the absence of oxygen, a cell can perform anaerobic respiration and ________ | fermentation |
| Fermentation | uses pyruvate to oxidize NADH, producing alcohol, lactic acid, or other byproducts; only 2 ATP are produced |
| Alcoholic fermentation | glucose -----> 2 pyruvate + 2NADH ----> 2 ethanol + 2CO2 + 2NAD+ |
| Lactic fermentation | glucose -----> 2 pyruvate + 2NADH ----> 2 lactic acid + 2NAD+ |
Created by:
coralis
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