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Cell Bio 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| True or False: Participants in single covalent bonds are free to rotate relative to each other | True |
| Double bonds contain ____ shared electrons | 4 |
| Bond angles and limited rotation is foundational to the structure of ________ ____________ | larger macromolecules |
| Nuclei are ________ charged | positively |
| Electrons in covalent bonds can be shared _________ | unequally |
| Elements are defined by their | electronegativity |
| electronegativity is | How strong molecules attract electrons |
| Partial negative and partial positive charges occur due to | unequal sharing, electrons spend more time around one nucleus than the other |
| In water, the oxygen is partially _______, and the hydrogens are partially _________ | negative; positive |
| Polar covalent bonds | Covalent bonds with unequal electron sharing |
| Ionic bonds | involve transfer of an electron between atoms |
| Ionic compounds are held together by attraction of ______ charges – such solids are called ______ | opposite; salts |
| Some macromolecules are held together by attraction of opposite charge ________ groups. Such interactions are called _____ _______ | functional; salt bridges |
| Ionic bonds have _____ to ____ times the strength of covalent bonds | 0.01 to 0.1 |
| Hydrogen bonds are _____ electrostatic interactions | weak |
| Hydrogen bonds form between a hydrogen ______ (covalently bound to the hydrogen) and a hydrogen ______ (attracted to the partial positive charge) | donor; acceptor |
| When hydrogen covalently bonds with ______ or ______, there is sufficient bond polarity to put a relatively strong partial ______ charge on the hydrogen | oxygen; nitrogen; positive |
| Hydrogen bonds are usually weak but | there are is power in numbers |
| 4 weak forces govern interactions between macromolecules | ionic, hydrogen, Van der Waals, and hydrophobic |
| Ionic bonds are | attraction between opposite charges |
| Hydrogen bonds are | attraction between a polar bonded hydrogen and an electronegative atom |
| Van der Waals bonds are | attraction between transient opposite charges |
| Hydrophobic bonds are | mutual exclusion of non-polar (hydrophobic) groups from water |
| Water doesn't affect covalent bonds because | covalent bonds are not charged based |
| Water may affect ionic bonds due to | it's partial charge |
| Water does not affect van der waals interactions due to | the transient state of the interactions and the bond already being weak |
| Hydrogen ________ can be released from ______ bonds | nuclei (protons); polar |
| An acid is a molecule that ________ ____ in solution | increases [H+] |
| A base is a molecule that _______ ___ (or _________ _____ in solution | decreases [H+] ; increases [OH-]) |
| Most biologically relevant acids are weak acids – they don’t fully dissociate, but exist in equilibrium with their _________ ______ | conjugate base |
| pH describes the | concentration protons in solution |
| At neutral pH, the concentration of ________ and _________ are equal | protons and hydroxyls |
| When pH rises, the weak acids ______ protons to lower the pH | release |
| When pH falls, the weak conjugate bases _______ protons to raise the pH | consume |
| _________ are the majority of non-water mass in cells | Macromolecules |
| Daltons are ____ with moles | 1:1 |
| __________ are formed through regulated polymerization of small molecule precursors | Macromolecules |
| Sugars have a general formula of: | (CH2O)n |
| Sugars are made of mostly ______, ________, and ________ | carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen |
| The general empirical formula for sugars is (CH2O)n | glucose, galactose, mannose, and allose |
| Sugars with the same empirical formula are distinguished by the | positions of functional groups |
| Stereochemistry describes reactions that proceed based on particular | functional group orientations |
| Individual monosaccharides join together via a reaction between ________ ______ | hydroxyl groups |
| True or False: The reaction release water derived from one sugar’s –OH and the other’s hydroxyl –H | True |
| hydrolysis is | breakdown of compound with water |
| Condensation is | a type of chemical reaction in which two molecules are combined to form a single molecule, usually with the loss of a small molecule such as water. |
| _______ ______ are linear chains of carbons and hydrogens capped with a carboxyl group | Fatty acids |
| Phospholipids consist of __ fatty acids joined via a ________ to a _____ group | 2; phosphate; polar |
| Phospholipids are ________ and can form bilayers in aqueous solutions | amphiphilic |
| Amino acids consist of _____, _______, and _____ functional groups | basic, acidic, and variable |
| Amino acids are _________ molecules | tetrahedral |
| Amino acids consist of a central carbon bonded with a ________, _______, ______, and a _______ | hydrogen, amino group, carboxyl group, and a variable R group. |
| Amino acids are subunits of _______ | proteins |
| Bond formation between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another releases water and results in a ______ ______ | peptide bond |
| A series of amino acids joined by peptide bonds is a __________ | polypeptide |
| Proteins are polypeptides that have matured into ________ ______ | functional forms |
| ______ are enzymes that catalyze hydrolysis reactions that break peptide bonds | Proteases |
| _____ is an intermediate, __________ molecule | ATP; energy-carrying |
| ____ is neither an energy source nor an energy storage molecule. | ATP |
| Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides linked by __________ bonds | phosphodiester |
| Hydrolysis of phosphodiester bonds are is catalyzed by enzymes called _________ | nucleases |
| ***covalent interactions determine the mature structure of ________ | ***macromolecules |
| _________ functional groups drive selectivity in macromolecular interactions | Complementary |
| Most of biological chemistry involves interactions between compounds of | Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen |
| ____ measures the concentration of protons in solution; pH = -log10[H+] | pH |
| Protons can dissociate from _____ bonds – molecules that tend to do this are termed ____ | polar; acids |
| Biological molecules associate based on _______ interactions between multiple functional groups | non-covalent |
| Non-covalent interactions include _______, _______, ________, and ______ | ionic, hydrogen bonding, van der Waals, and non-polar/hydrophobic |
| ***Relative electronegativity between interacting atoms determines whether _________, _______, or ________ are formed | ***non-polar covalent, covalent, or ionic bonds |
| True or False: Shells can be filled by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons. | True |
| Element behavior in reactions is determined by the number of ________ ______ – reactions that result in filled outer electron shells are most energetically favored | valence electrons |
| Elements are categorized via their atomic number (defined by number of ______) | protons |
| True or False: Molarity describes the number of moles dissolved in solution. A 1 molar (1M) contains 1 mole per liter. | True |
| True or False: A mole is roughly 6.022 ×10^23 atoms/molecules. An atom’s/molecule’s molar mass is the number of grams in one mole. | True |
| Besides water, most biological molecules are ______– carbon’s ability to form __ covalent bonds makes organic molecules highly diverse | organic; 4 |
| Properties of organic molecules vary according to _______ groups | chemical |
| Macromolecules are polymers of subunit small molecules formed via _________ ________ | condensation reactions; |
| Macromolecules can be broken down via ________ | hydrolysis |
| Amphiphilic lipids form bilayers that are the basis of _______ ________ | cellular membranes |
| ________ are both synthetic molecules and energy carriers | Nucleotides |
| _________ ______ encode information in their sequence of nucleotides | Nucleic acids |
| _______ are polypeptides (polymers of amino acids) with structures governed by non-covalent interactions of R groups | Proteins |
| _________ is the sum of all chemical reactions performed by a cell | Metabolism |
| Catabolism is | the breakdown of complex molecules into their simpler components and energy |
| Anabolism is | the assembly of small precursor molecules into larger molecules (requires energy addition) |
| Disordered systems have a _____ energy state than ordered systems | lower |
| Systems acquire _________ (unusable energy) as they become disordered | entropy |
| 2nd law of thermodynamics | in the universe as a whole and in closed systems, entropy increases |
| A common manifestation of entropy is ______ | heat (a form of kinetic energy) |
| sugars form __________ | polysaccharides |
| fatty acids form _____ and membrane ______ | fats; lipids |
| amino acids form ______ | proteins |
| Nucleotides form _______ _____ | nucleic acids |
| 1st Law of thermodynamics | Energy can be neither created nor destroyed, but it can be changed |
| 1st law – total amount of energy in the universe is _____ | fixed |
| Energy can be translated between different manifestations such as ________, ________, _____, and _______ | Potential, kinetic, bond, & heat |
| In keeping with 2nd law, energy is always ____ during energy transformations (entropy is released) | lost |
| _____________ interactions govern interactions between different macromolecules | Non-covalent |
| ______ ________ use light to increase the energy state of electrons on water molecules and transfer them to energy carriers | Light reactions |
| The _______ ______ uses energy delivered by energy carriers to build sugars from carbon dioxide and water | Calvin cycle |
| _______ of the class haloarchaea use a light-proton pump called bacteriorhodopsin to established proton gradients that power ATP synthase | Archaea |
| Cells obtain energy via the oxidation of _____ molecules | organic |
| 3 things photosynthesis does | Releases oxygen, synthesizes sugars, reduction reaction |
| 3 things cellular respiration does | Consumes oxygen, breaks down sugars, oxidation reaction |
| Cellular metabolism cycles ______ into and out of the atmosphere | carbon |
| Cells obtain energy via the oxidation of ______ molecules | organic |
| True or False: The oxidation number is the hypothetical charge on an atom if all its bonds were ionic instead of covalent. | True |
| Oxidation state describes the electron attraction with a particular atom in a molecule with ______ bonds. | polar |
| In biological RedOx reactions, electrons typically don’t move _____ | alone |
| Do enzymes push reactions in a particular direction? They allow reactions to reach ________ faster by lowering the __________ energy | no; equilibrium; activation |
| Equilibrium is the ______ energy ratio of products to reactants | lowest |
| True or False: No reaction turns all reactants into products | True |
| The equilibrium constant, K, is | the ratio of products to reactants at equilibrium. |
| K > 1 = | more product at equilibrium |
| K < 1 = | more reactants at equilibrium |
| Catalysts allow reactions to reach _______ faster (they do not change equilibrium concentrations) | equilibrium |
| Catalysts can influence _______ of reactions with multiple potential products | direction |
| Most reactions that occur in cells are extremely slow in their uncatalyzed states – this is an opportunity for _________ | regulation |
| __________ is comprised of catabolism (molecule breakdown) and anabolism (molecule synthesis) | Metabolism |
| ***Much of metabolism is composed of reduction-oxidation (RedOx) reactions. Reduction is _____ of electrons (and usually also hydrogen); reduction is ____ of electrons. | ***gain; loss |
| Universal order continuously _______ and universal entropy continuously _______, but application of energy can increase order locally – cells use _____ to increase and maintain their own order | decreases; increases; energy |
| __________ can control reactions with multiple outcomes by specifically lowering activation energy that produces preferred products. | Catalysts |
| Reactions must overcome activation energy thresholds to occur. _________ (biological catalysts) lower activation energy and help reactions reach equilibrium faster. | Enzymes |
| Reactions where free energy decreases are ____________, but not necessarily fast. | spontaneous |
| Reactions are governed by changes in their ____ _______(DG). | free energy |
| Heat enters, change in H is positive= | endothermic |
| Heat exits, change in H is negative= | exothermic |
| If delta G is negative the delta S is | positive |
| H= | enthalpy |
| S= | entropy |
| The entropy of one system can decrease if the entropy of another connected system ________. | increases |
| ****Rate of reaction is dependent on the concentration of | ***reactants in it |
| At equilibrium K= _____ and delta G= | Q; 0 |
| _________ reactions can drive non-spontaneous reactions | Spontaneous |
| Anabolic reactions often have products with a _____ energy than reactants | higher |
| True or False: Not all biological reactions are spontaneous | True |
| ________ _______ links spontaneous reactions to non | Reaction coupling |
| the products of a non-spontaneous reaction are ________ for a spontaneous reaction | reactants |
| Activated carriers allow coupling of ________ and temporally ______ reactions | spatially; distant |
| _____ is the most used activated carrier molecule | ATP |
| ________ transfer reactions can produce reactive intermediates | Phosphate |
| Activation nucleotides by _____________ powers nucleic acid polymerization | phosphorylation |
| ___ phosphate each from _ ATP molecules generates nucleotide triphosphates | 1; 2 |
| The pyrophosphate (PP) released is _________ to ____ inorganic phosphates | hydrolyzed; 2 |
| During DNA or RNA synthesis, an NTP his hydrolyzed to ______ and added to the growing chain. | NMP |
| polymer activation | each monomer carries a high-energy bond that will be used for the addition of the next monomer |
| Direct monomer activation | each monomer carries a high-energy bond for its own addition |
| ______ acts as an oxidizing agent in glycolysis | NAH |
| Phases of glycolysis | (1) Energy investment, (2) 3-carbon sugar {triose] generation (3) Energy pay-off |
| Phase 1 glycolysis | • Formation of 2 early intermediates (glucose 6-phosphate and fructose 1,6-bisphosphate) requires external energy • ATP serves as both energy source and phosphate donor • 2 molecules are required per molecule of glucose |
| Phase 2 glycolysis | Reactions split fructose 1,6-bisphosphate into two molecules of GAP (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate) |
| Phase 3 glycolysis (I) | • Entry into this phase is predicated on oxidation of GAP • Recall – if something is oxidized, something else is reduced • GAP oxidation is linked to NAD+ reduction (NADH produced) |
| Phase 3 glycolysis (II) | • Two particularly exergonic steps in this phase release sufficient energy to power transfer of phosphate directly to ADP (substrate level phosphorylation) |
| Glycolysis Step 1 | |
| Glycolysis Step 2 | |
| Glycolysis Step 2 | |
| Glycolysis Step 2 | |
| Glycolysis Step 2 | |
| Glycolysis Step 2 | |
| Glycolysis Step 2 | |
| Glycolysis Step 2 | |
| Glycolysis Step 2 | |
| Glycolysis Step 10 | |
| Fatty acid oxidation produces activated carriers as _______ ____ | acetyl CoA |
| Pyruvate from glycolysis (and other processes) is changed to ________ _____ | acetyl CoA |
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eyenga
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