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BIO1022
Week 9 - 12
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Describe the basic steps of an action potential | Positive ions must enter the neuron to change the voltage. axon hillock, where an action potential is triggered action potential are conducted to the axon terminal where they cause the release of neurotransmitters. |
| How does receptor and synapse number affect memory? | The greater the number of channels, the more positive ions can enter the neuron which in turn means the threshold is more likely to be reached and an action potential triggered. - creates effective network and strong memories are created |
| Describe the basics of neuronal functioning | stimuli received by the dendrites. synaptic stimuli are summed at the axon hillock = action potential if signals are enough. action potential fired down axon to axon terminal. neurotransmitter through synaptic gap. |
| Describe two mechanisms associated with learning at the cellular level | long term potentiation. long term depression. |
| meaning of proximate in terms of behaviour + examples | are explanation to HOW the behaviour came to be. - causation: what physiological mechanisms cause the behaviour? - development: how did the behaviour develop? e.g. Natal dispersal triggered by hormones in ground squirrels |
| innate behaviour | Describes behaviors that are instinctive and carried out regardless of earlier experience |
| how an animals behaviour can be affected both extrinsically | displays FAPS feature detectors |
| abiotic factors | non-living chemical and physical parts of the environment that affect living organisms and the functioning of ecosystems |
| biotic factors | living organism that shapes its environment |
| List some of the abiotic and biotic factors that contribute to the development of a fundamental niche | The physical or abiotic factors that define a species' niche might include things like climate or the availability of suitable resources such as food. The ecological biotic factors include the species' interactions with other species in the environment. |
| Competition, both intra- and inter-specific | This can arise because food, space, and breeding territories are often in limited supply. Can occur between different species. Where one species prevents others from occupying the same niche at the same time – competitive exclusion |
| Predation | In which one species consumes another. |
| Facilitation | presence of one species alters the environment in a way that enhances growth, survival or reproduction of a second, neighbouring species |
| Mutualism | Benefit for both species |
| Symbiosis | Parasites don’t kill their hosts but consume nutrients from their host’s tissue, reducing their fitness |
| Commensalism | benefits one but no benefit or disadvantage to other |
| Resource partitioning | the division of resources to avoid interspecific competition for limited resources in an ecosystem |
| Antagonistic interactions | competition predation parasitism herbivory |
| brood parasitism | parasitism among birds characterized by a bird of one species laying its eggs in the nest of a bird of another species and giving no parental care to the eggs. |
| key stone species | an organism that helps hold the system together |
| obligatory mutualism | one organism cannot survive without the other |
| species richness | the number of species within a defined region |
| What is a metaorganism? | a number of different organisms that form an intimate physical association and exist as an integrated entity. |
| What is a pathogen? | an organism causing disease to its host |
| what type of interspecies interaction do pathogens lead to? | immune response |
| what are the major groups of pathogens? | viruses , bacteria, fungi, helminths, worms |
| how to pathogens lead do a diseased state in the host? | by attacking host cells production of toxins |
| what are some evolutionary reasons for an organism to want to cause a diseased state in its host? | to survive and multiply for nutrients to feed |
| Explain the concept of ‘selective toxicity’ | The aim of antimicrobial therapy is to kill or inhibit the infecting organism without damaging the host |
| outline the major cellular targets of anti-bacterial medications. | there are three main antibiotic targets in bacteria: The cell wall or membranes that surrounds the bacterial cell. |
| What human activities have promoted the rapid emergence of antibiotic resistance? | misuse and overuse of antibiotics, as well as poor infection prevention and control |
| What are the major mechanisms by which microbes can ensure resistance to antibiotics? | limiting uptake of a drug, modification of a drug target, inactivation of a drug, and active efflux of a drug |
| How can antibiotic resistance first appear, and then spread, through bacterial populations? | Through mutation and selection |
| List the components of the innate immune system | physical, chemical, biological barriers. Quick acting - minutes Recognise pathogens with ‘common’ characteristics Inflammation |
| Which members of the innate immune system are antigen presenting cells (APCs)? | dendritic cells macrophages b-cells mast cells basophils eosinophils |
| Describe the importance of Pathogen Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPs) and how they are recognised by phagocytes | Structures associated with pathogen and not found in our tissues: ‘if different, destory’. identifies by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) |
| antigen | any substance that causes your immune system to produce antibodies against it |
| antibody | protein made by plasma cells (a type of white blood cell) in response to an antigen |
| MHC Class I | - CD8 T cells - express on all cells - It presets pathogen proteins that are found in the cytoplasm |
| Which type of cell would you find each MHC class on? | MHC Class I: express on all cells except for cells that dont have nuclei MHC Class II: expressed by DC, macrophages, B cells |
| How does the body prevent T and B cells from attacking the host? | All of your body's cells carry specific proteins on their surfaces that help the immune system recognize them as “self.” |
| A bacterial infection - sequences of events | Antibodies bind to bacteria or bacterial toxins and prevent their invasion or entry = neutralisation Coating of pathogen by antibody is called opsoniasation recognise pathogen via pathogen recognition receptors which lead to phagocytosis |
| cytokines | small proteins that are crucial in controlling the growth and activity of other immune system cells and blood cells |
| dendritic cell | captures the pathogen and processing it so that t-cell can be activated |
| eosinophil | granulocytes Intracellular granules which contain cocktail of destructive substances Act by releasing their granules onto the surface of pathogen: degranulation |
| immunoglobulin | glycoprotein molecules produced by plasma cells (white blood cells). They act as a critical part of the immune response by specifically recognizing and binding to particular antigens |
| lymph node | cells and fluid drain through these. when pathogen encounters bacteria or virus, it is taken to the lymph nodes. there is exposure to the huge number of T and B cells, in the hope of finding the ones needed to munt the immune response |
| macrophage | phagocyte: Recognition of pathogen (PRR:PAMP) Engulfment in phagosome Contain destructive cocktail of substances: enzymes, reactive oxygen species Generation of phagolysosome exposes pathogen to lysosome content: destruction of pathogen |
| neutrophil | granulocytes Intracellular granules which contain cocktail of destructive substances Act by releasing their granules onto the surface of pathogen: degranulation |
| phagocytes | Recognition of pathogen (PRR:PAMP) Engulfment in phagosome Contain destructive cocktail of substances: enzymes, reactive oxygen species Generation of phagolysosome exposes pathogen to lysosome content: destruction of pathogen |
| thymus | production site of t-cells |
| action potential definition | a brief membrane electrical signal transmitted from the nerve cell body along one or more axon |
| meaning of ultimate in terms of behaviour + examples | WHY the behaviour came to be. e.g. - adaptive function: how behaviour promotes survival and reproduction. - evolutionary history: how did the behaviour evolve over time? e.g. Heightened food supply enhances fitness in blackbirds. |
| learned behaviour | Describes a behavior that depends on an individual’s experience. |
| long term potentiation | long lasting strengthening of synaptic connections. this results in more efficient and enhanced synaptic transmission. therefore higher chance that what has been learnt will not be forgotten. |
| long term depression | long lasting decrease in the strength of synaptic transmission. evident by synaptic pruning. helps with clearing space for synaptic connections that are no longer needed, e.g. walking/serving a tennis ball. |
| how an animals behaviour can be affected both intrinsically | hormones trigger certain behaviours genes can play a role in behaviour |
| displays | patterns of behaviours that are species specific and tend to follow the same sequence of actions whenever they are repeated and in a way that is similar from one individual to the next |
| FAPs | fixed action patterns - sequences of behaviours that once triggered by key stimulus is followed through to completion |
| feature detectors | specialised sensory receptors that respond to important signals in the environment. e.g. male frogs call to attract females and warn off other males. this call is distinct to frogs allowing the species to recongince the call from their own species. |
| fundamental niche | includes the full range of climate conditions and food resources that permit the individuals in a species to live. |
| realised niche | the actual range of habitats occupied by species (due to competition and predations, habitats are limited) |
| MHC Class II | - CD4 T - expressed by DC, macrophages, B cells - Present pathogen proteins that originate from outside the cell |
| complement system | A group of soluble proteins produced from the liver perform opsonisation create membrane attack complex enhance inflammation |
| IgD | B-cell receptor and found on the surface of B cells |
| IgG | single unit and secreted in high amount into the circulation and important against bacterial and viruses - found in tissues and blood circulation and can cross the placenta to unborn child |
| IgE | a single unit and found mainly attached to the surface of Mast cells: useful against worms but also responsible for allergic response – epithelial layers |
| IgM | typically a pentamer - 5 single units joined at the tail – found in blood circulation |
| IgA | typically a dimer , actively transported across epithelial surfaces and found in respiratory system, the gastrointestinal system, genitourinary tracts, secretions such as tears and saliva and is also transported across with breast milk. |
| opsonisation | process in which complement proteins coat the outer layer of the pathogen. allows phagocytes to engulf pathogen easily |
| MAC | membrane attack complex - creates hole in pathogen causes inrushing fluids --> lysis/destruction of pathogen |
| neutrilisation | blocking the entry of a pathogen into a cell so that it is unable to infect healthy cells, and it is unable to replicate and cause severe infection. |
| agglutination | the formation of clumps of cells or inert particles by specific antibodies |
| cell migration | Docking/rolling phagocyte travels along the inside the vessel wall Adhesion phagocyte binds to vessel wall Migration - extravasation The phagocyte changes shape, exits the vessel, and enters the surrounding tissue to travel to the site of damage |
| altruism | self sacrifice |
Created by:
redshre
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