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BIO1110
Exam 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is metabolism? | all of the chemical reactions within a living organism |
| What is catabolism? | break down of complex organic molecules into simpler compounds with release of energy |
| Does catabolism release or require energy? | catabolism releases energy |
| What does a release of energy generate? | ATP |
| Does catabolism generate or require ATP? | generates ATP |
| What is anabolism? | the building of complex organic molecules form simpler ones |
| Does anabolism release or require energy? | anabolism requires energy |
| Does anabolism generate or require ATP? | requires ATP |
| What is metabolism? | the sum total of all chemical reactions occurring in a cell |
| What makes up metabolism? | Catabolism+Anabolism |
| What do enzymes do? | Catalyze virtually every reaction in cells |
| What is synthesis? | The removal of water |
| What is hydrolysis? | The addition of water |
| What is energy? | The capacity to do work |
| Organisms are what type of system? | Open system |
| What is an open system? | Taking in energy, converting energy, storing some energy and releasing some to the environment |
| What is thermodynamics? | The study of energy transformations |
| What is the central property of ALL living organisms? | The necessity to transform energy |
| What is the first law of thermodynamics? | Energy can be neither created nor destroyed but can be transformed from one form to another |
| What is the second law of thermodynamics? | In any systems as a chemical reaction proceeds, there is a net increase in disorder of the universe at large (e.g., all energy/matter conversions are inefficient and some energy is lost as heat |
| What is free energy? | A measure of the amount of energy that is released as a reactions proceeds |
| What is free energy also called? | Gibbs Free Energy |
| What is the abbreviation for Free Energy? | G |
| G provides what? | A criterion for measuring the sponaneity of a system |
| What reactions are thermodynamically possible or spontaneous? | Only reactions that release energy to the environment |
| What reactions have a negative change in free energy? | Gravitational motion, diffusion, chemical reactions |
| What is the abbreviation for total energy? | H |
| What is the abbreviation for entropy? | S |
| What is the free energy equation? | G = H - TS |
| What unit is temperature measured in for the Free Energy Equation? | Kelvin |
| What happens to free energy in a spontaneous process? | It decreases |
| The change in free energy can be represented by what equations? | ^G = G final - G initial ^G = ^H - T^S |
| What constitutes a spontaneous system? | Must either give up energy (decrease in H - total energy), give up order (decrease in S - entropy), or both |
| Is the change in free energy (^G) positive or negative? | Negative |
| What does a decrease in free energy equal? | A greater maximum amount of work that a spontaneous process can form |
| Does nature run downhill or uphill? | Downhill |
| When is a system at maximum stability? | Equilibrium |
| When can a system do no work? | Equilibrium |
| What is ^G at equilibrium? | Zero |
| What is an exergonic reaction? | Reaction that proceeds with a net release of free energy and ^G is negative |
| What is an endergonic reaction? | One that absorbs free energy from its surroundings, ^G is positive, and reactions are nonspontaneous |
| What type of reaction absorbs free energy? | Endergonic |
| What type of reaction releases free energy? | Exergonic |
| What type of reaction results in a negative ^G? | Exergonic |
| What type of reaction results in a positive ^G? | Endergonic |
| 2nd law of thermodynamics example | Entropy increases, everything moves from greater to lesser |
| What type of reaction is photosynthesis? | Endergonic |
| How does ATP power cellular work? | by coupling exergonic reactions to endergonic reactions |
| What are the three main kinds of work that a cell does? | Mechanical, transport, chemical |
| What is the immediate source of energy that powers cellular work? | ATP |
| How can the bonds between phosphate groups be broke? | By hydrolysis |
| What is cellular work driven by? | ATP Hydrolysis |
| What is ATP Hydrolysis? | involves ATP activating another molecule by transferring a phosphate group to it |
| What is phosphorylation? | Transferring a phosphate group to another molecule |
| Is ATP a renewable resource? | Yes |
| How is ATP continually regenerated? | By adding a phosphate group to ADP |
| Where does the energy to support renewal com from? | Catabolic reactions in the cell |
| Is regeneration an endergonic or exergonic process? | Endergonic |
| What are enzymes? | Proteins |
| What functions do proteins perform? | Enzymes, carrier molecules, hormones, antibodies, components of the cell wall & cell membrane |
| What composes over 50% of a cells dry weight? | Protein |
| What is the basic unit molecule of an protein/enzyme? | Amino Acid |
| What are the bonds between amino acids called? | Peptide bonds |
| What makes up an amino acid? | Central carbon, amino group, carboxyl group, hydrogen, *r group (side chain) |
| How many R groups are there? | 20 |
| What is the primary protein structure? | Basic sequence of amino acids |
| What is the secondary protein structure? | How the primary structure folds back on itself |
| What is the tertiary protein structure? | How the secondary structure folds back on itself |
| What is the quaternary protein structure? | intimate interaction of 2 or more proteins bonding to each other |
| What are substrate specific? | Enzymes |
| What is a substrate? | A reactant that binds to an enzyme |
| What happens when a substrate binds to an enzyme? | The enzyme catalyzes the conversion of substrate to product |
| What is the active site of an enzyme? | A pocket or groove on the surface of the protein into which substrate fits |
| What determines the specificity of an enzyme? | The fit between active site & substrate |
| What happens when a substrate binds? | Enzyme changes shape leading to a tighter induced fit |
| What does an induced fit do? | Bring chemical groups in position to catalyze reaction |
| How do enzymes speed up metabolic reactions? | By lowering energy barriers; lowering Ea |
| What is Ea? | Activation energy |
| Do enzymes change ^G? | NO |
| Which direction can metabolic enzymes catalyze a reaction? | Forward and reverse |
| Are enzymes reusable? | Yes |
| What affects enzyme activity? | a cells physical and chemical environment |
| What denatures an enzyme? | Temperature, pH, detergents, and salts |
| What are cofactors involved in? | redox reactions |
| What are the two types of cofactors? | Prosthetic groups (permanently bound to apoenzyme) Coenzyme (loosely binds to apoenzyme as needed) |
| What are many coenzymes derived from? | Vitamins |
| What are examples of coenzymes? | Niacin, Riboflavin, Pantothenic Acid |
| What can the regulation of enzymes do? | Regulate metabolism |
| How does allosteric regulation happen? | Through feedback, phosphorylation, or other chemical change |
| What are catalysts that speed up and direct chemical reactions? | Enzymes |
| How are enzymes regulated? | By compartmentalization |
| What is the theme of emergent properties? | With each increase in levels of structural order, new properties emerge in addition to those of the component parts |
| What does a cell need to do work? | Fuel |
| How does a cell get fuel? | By acquiring resources: -carbon sources -various cofactors like specific metals (Fe++) and vitamins (B12) |
| What is oxidation? | Loss of Hydrogens and/or electrons |
| What is reduction? | Gain of Hydrogens and/or electrons |
| Do organisms reduce or oxidize carbohydrates? | Oxidize |
| What is the most common energy source? | Glucose |
| How can energy be obtained from Glucose? | Respiration Fermentation |
| What is the chemical equation for aerobic cellular respiration? | C6H12O6 + 6 O2 --> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Heat 38 ADP + 38 P --> 38 ATP |
| What happens during aerobic cellular respiration? | Electrons released by oxidation are passed down an electron transport system with oxygen being the final electron acceptor |
| What is the general (not the chemical) equation for aerobic cellular respiration? | glucose + oxygen --> energy + carbon dioxide + water + heat |
| How does ATP drive transport work? | ATP phosphorylates transport proteins |
| How does ATP drive mechanical work? | ATP phosphorylates motor proteins |
| How does ATP drive chemical work? | ATP phosphorylates key reactants |
| Is catabolism performed by all life? | Yes |
| What does the hydrolysis reaction yield? | Little energy & mostly lost as heat |
| What are the four subpathways of aerobic cellular respiration? | Glycolysis, Transition reactions, Kreb's Cycle, Electron Transport System (E.T.S.) |
| Where does glycolosis take place? | Cytoplasm |
| Where does transition reaction take place? | prokaryotes - cytoplasm eukaryotes - mitochondria |
| Where does the Kreb's Cycle take place? | prokaryotes - cytoplasm eukaryotes - mitochondria |
| Where does the electron transport system take place? | prokaryotes - plasma membrane eukaryotes - mitochondrial inner membrane |
| What does glycolysis start with? | Glucose |
| How many molecules of ATP does it take to start Glycolysis? | 2 |
| What are the end products of Glycolysis? | 2 Pyruvic Acid 2 NADH2 2 ATP |
| What is glucose oxidized into during Glycolysis? | 2 molecules of pyruvic acid Pyruvate |
| What is another name for glycolysis? | Embden-meyerhof pathway |
| How much ATP is invested for six carbon (investment) stage? | 2 ATP |
| In what stage can Substrate-Level Phospholypration be found? | Three Carbon (Yield) Stage |
| How much ATP is yielded in three carbon (yield) stage? | 4 ATP |
| How many ATP are yielded for all of Glycolysis? | 2 ATP because 2 ATP are invested |
| Catabolism of Glucose in Glycolysis ends in? | Pyruvate and ATP via substrate level phosphorylation(SLP) |
| How is glucose catabolized in respiration? | pyruvate oxidized by Krebs Cycle (ATP by SLP); Electron Transport Chain & Chemiosmosis (ATP via oxidative phosphorylation); terminal electron acceptor (O2 or other like NO3) |
| How is glucose catabolized in fermentation? | Lack of respiration; pyruvate is reduced to another organic; little ATP yield by SLP |
| What is the transition reaction? | It connects glycolysis to Krebs Cycle |
| What does the transition reaction start with? | 2 pyruvic acids |
| What are the end products of the transition reaction? | 2 Acetyl CoEnzyme A 2 CO2 2 NADH2 |
| What is another name for the Krebs Cycle? | Citric Acid Cycle |
| What is the Krebs Cycle? | Series of chemical reactions that begin and end with citric acid |
| What are the end products of krebs cycle? | 2 ATP 6 NADH2 2 FADH2 4 CO2 |
| How many Krebs Cycles are required per glucose? | 2 cyles / glucose |
| What does respiration allow pyruvate to do? | completely oxidize to CO2 |
| Where does the Electron Transport System occur? | Occurs within the cell membrane of prokaryotes and outside the inner membrane of mitochondria of eukaryotes |
| How many ATP does the ETS yield? | 34 |
| What is the energy output of the ETS? | 3 ATP for each NADH2 2 ATP for each FADH2 |
| What is the total ATP production for the complete oxidation of 1 molecule of glucose in aerobic respiration? | glycolysis: 2 transition rxn: 0 krebs cycle: 2 ETS: 34 = 38 ATP total (bacteria) = 36 ATP total (eukaryotes) |
| How are carbohydrates catobolized? | some monosaccharides may require conversion to glucose or other sugar intermediate |
| How are proteins catabolized? | Amino acid must be either demination and/or transamination |
| How are nucleic acids catabolized? | ribose sugar to glycolysis purines and pyrimidines to component amino acids |
| How are lipids catabolized? | Glycerol to glycolysis fatty acids to acetyl-CoA via B-oxidation |
| What happens during anaerobic respiration (prokaryotes)? | Electrons released by oxidation are passed down an ETS but oxygen is NOT the final electron acceptor |
| What is fermentation? | Anaerobic process that does not use the ETS. Usually involves the incomplete oxidation of a carbohydrate which then becomes the final electron acceptor |
| What happens without respiration? | NADH is accumulated |
| What happens when NAD+ is not available? | Glycolysis won't proceed; no source of ATP |
| What do fermentation pathways do? | Couple NADH oxidation and pyruvate reduction, or reduction of another endogenous organic |
| What are some examples of photoautotrophs? | Plants, algae & some prokaryotes |
| Where does photosynthesis occur? | Chloroplast |
| What do chloroplasts contain? | Thylakoids and grana |
| What is photosynthesis? | Conversion of light energy from the sun into chemical energy |
| How does chemical energy change CO2 to sugar (CH2O) | reduction |
| What is carbon fixation? | recycling of carbon in the environment |
| What is life dependent on? | Carbon fixation |
| What are heterotrophs | organisms that acquire their nutrients from other organisms |
| What is the chemical equation for photosynthesis? | 6 CO2 + 12 H2O + sunlight -> C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O + heat |
| What are the two parts of photosynthesis? | Light reaction & calvin cycle |
| When does the calvin cycle occur? | All the time |
| When does the light reaction occur? | When light is available |
| Where is water split? | Within chloroplasts |
| What is the redox of photosynthesis? | Water is oxidized, carbon is reduced |
| Where do the light reactions occur? | grana/on the thylakoid membrane |
| What happens during the light reactions | split water, release oxygen, produce ATP, and form NADPH |
| Where does the calvin cycle take place? | stroma |
| What happens during the calvin cycle? | sugar is formed from carbon dioxide using ATP for energy & NADPH for reducing power |
| What do light reactions require? | Light & H2O |
| What do light reactions produce? | ATP, NADPH, & O2 |
| What does the calvin cycle require? | ATP, NADPH, & CO2 |
| What does the calvin cycle produce? | Carbohydrates: glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate |
| How are light dependent reactions made possible? | photochemistry of chlorophyll molecules |
| How is cyclic electron flow different from noncylcic? | only photosystem I is used only ATP is produced |
| What does the calvin cycle use? | ATP and NADPH from light reactions, CO2 from atmosphere, ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase |
| what are stromata? | leaf surface pores thru which gases exit & enter leaf tissue |
| Where can photorespiration occur? | in conditions where O2 is very high & CO2 is low |
| What does photorespiration consume | O2 |
| What does photorespiration produce? | CO2 |
| What does photorespiration NOT generate | ATP or Sugar |
Created by:
kdowling
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