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A&P Ch 3 Cells
Principles of A&P 12th Edition
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is the plasma membrane and what is its function? | It is the cell's flexible outer surface, separating the cell's internal environment from the external environment and is best described by a fluid mosaic model. |
| What does the Cytoplasm consist of? | All the cellular contents between the plasma membrane and the nucleus. |
| What are the two components of Cytoplasm? | Cytosol and the Organelles. |
| What is the Cytosol? | The fluid portion of cytoplasm, contains water, dissolved solutes, and suspended particles. |
| What is an organelle? | A structure within a cell with a characteristic shape and specific function. |
| What is a nucleus? | A large organelle that houses most of a cell's DNA. |
| What is a chromosome? | A single molecule of DNA associated with several proteins that contains thousands of hereditary units called genes that control most aspects of cellular structure and function. |
| What is the basic structural framework of the plasma membrane? | A lipid bilayer, which is two back-to-back layers made up of three types of lipid molecules-- Phospholipids, cholesterol, and glycolipids. |
| About 75% of the membrane lipids are? | Phospholipids, which are lipids that contain phosphorus. |
| About 20% of the membrane lipids are? | Cholesterol, which is a steroid with an attached -OH (hydroxyl) group. |
| About 5% of the membrane lipids are? | Glycolipids, which are lipids with attached carbohydrate groups. |
| Why does the lipid bilayer arrangement occur? | It occurs because the lipids are amphipathic molecules, which means that they have both polar and nonpolar parts. |
| In phospholipids the polar part is the? | Phosphate containing "head," which is hydrophilic or "water loving." |
| In phospholipids the nonpolar parts are the? | Two long fatty acid "tails," which are hydrophobic (water fearing) hydrocarbon chains. |
| Glycolipids only appear in which membrane layer? | The layer that faces the extracellular fluid, which is one reason the two sides of the bilayer are asymmetric, or different. |
| Which lipid molecules are weakly amphipathic and are interspersed among the other lipids in both layers of the membrane? | Cholesterol. |
| Which proteins extend into or through the lipid bilayer among the fatty acid tails and are firmly embedded in it? | Integral proteins |
| Most integral proteins are ________ proteins, which means they span the entire lipid bilayer and protrude into both the cytosol and extracellular fluid? | Transmembrane |
| Which proteins are not as firmly embedded in the membrane and associate more loosely with the polar heads of membrane lipids or with integral proteins at the inner or outer surface of the membrane? | Peripheral Proteins |
| Many membrane proteins are ________, proteins with carbohydrate groups attached to the ends that protrude into the extracellular fluid. | Glycoproteins |
| The carbohydrate portions of glycolipids and glycoproteins form an extensive sugary coat called the _________. | Glycocalyx |
| Some integral membrane proteins form ____ ______, pores or holes through which specific ions, such as potassium ions, can get into or out of the cell. | Ion Channels |
| Other integral proteins act as _______, selectively moving a polar substance or ion from one side of the membrane to the other. | Carriers (also known as transporters) |
| Integral proteins called ________ serve as cellular recognition sites. Each type recognizes and binds a specific type of molecule. | Receptors |
| What is a specific molecule that binds to a receptor called? | Ligand of that receptor. |
| Some integral proteins are ________ that catalyze specific chemical reactions at the inside or outside surface of the cell. | Enzymes |
| Integral proteins may also serve as ______, which anchor proteins in the plasma membranes of neighboring cells to one another or to protein filaments inside and outside the cell. | Linkers |
| Membrane glycoproteins and glycolipids often serve as ____ _______ _______. | Cell Identity Markers |
| Membrane fluidity depends on the number of what? and on the amount of what? | The number of double bonds in the fatty acid tails of the lipids that make up the bilayer and on the amount of Cholesterol present. |
| The term _______ means that a structure permits the passage of substances through it. | Permeable |
| The term _______ means that a structure does not permit the passage of substances through it. | Impermeable |
| Plasma membranes permit some substances to pass more readily than others. This property of membranes is termed _______ _________. | Selective Permeability |
| The lipid bilayer portion of the membrane is permeable to what? | nonpolar, uncharged molecules, such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and steroids. |
| The lipid bilayer portion of the membrane is impermeable to what? | Ions and large, uncharged polar molecules such as glucose. |
| __________ are so large that they are unable to pass across the plasma membrane except by endocytosis and exoctytosis. | Macromolecules |
| What is a difference in the concentration of a chemical from one place to another? | Concentration gradient |
| A difference in electrical charges between two regions constitutes __ _________ _________. | An electrical gradient |
| The charge of an electrical gradient across the plasma membrane is termed _____ ________ | Membrane potential |
| The combined influence of the concentration gradient and the electrical gradient on movement of a particular ion is referred to as its _________ ______ | electrochemical gradient |
| In ____ ______ a substance moves down its concentration or electrical gradient to cross the membrane using only its own kinetic energy. | Passive processes |
| In _____ ________ cellular energy is used to drive the substance "uphill" against its concentration or electrical gradient. | Active processes |
| _________ is a passive process in which the random mixing of particles in a solution occurs because of the particles' kinetic energy. | Diffusion |
| Solute molecules will diffuse toward the area of ______ _________. | lower concentration |
| The greater the difference in concentration between the two sides of the membrane, the higher the rate of _______. | Diffusion |
| The higher the temperature, the faster the rate of _______. | Diffusion |
| The larger the mass of the particle, the ______ the rate of diffusion. | slower |
| The larger the membrane surface area available for diffusion, the _____ the diffusion rate. | faster |
| The greater the distance over which diffusion must occur, the _____ it takes. | longer |
| _______ _______ is a passive process in which substances move freely through the lipid bilayer of the plasma membranes of cells without the help of membrane transport proteins. | Simple diffusion |
| ______, _______ molecules move across the lipid bilayer through the process of simple diffusion. | Nonpolar, hydrophobic |
| Solutes that are too polar or highly charged to move through the lipid bilayer by simple diffusion can cross the plasma membrane by a passive process called _______ _______. | facilitated diffusion |
| In ____ _____ ________ diffusion, a solute moves down its concentration gradient across the lipid bilayer through a membrane channel. | channel mediated facilitated |
| Most membrane channels are ___ channels | Ion |
| A channel is said to be _____ when part of the channel protein acts as a "plug" or "gate," changing shape in one way to open the pore and in another way to close it. | gated |
| In ______ ______ ________ diffusion, a carrier is used to move a solute down its concentration gradient across the plasma membrane. | carrier mediated facilitated |
| _____ is a type of diffusion in which there is net movement of a solvent through a selectively permeable membrane. | Osmosis |
| Osmosis is a _____ process. | passive |
| In osmosis, water moves through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of _____ solute concentration to an area of _____ solute concentration. | lower, higher |
| During osmosis, water molecules pass through a plasma membrane in two ways: 1. by moving through the lipid bilayer via _____ _______ and 2. by moving through ______ | 1. simple diffusion 2. aquaporins |
| ______ occurs only when a membrane is permeable to water but is not permeable to certain solutes. | Osmosis |
| _____ _______ is the force exerted by the solution with the impermeable solute. | Osmotic pressure |
| The osmotic pressure of a solution is proportional to the concentration of _____ particles that cannot cross the membrane. | solute |
| A solution's ________ is a measure of the solution's ability to change the volume of cells by altering their water content. | tonicity |
| Any solution in which a cell maintains its normal shape and volume is an _________ solution. | isotonic |
| The concentration of solutes that cannot cross the plasma membrane are the same on both sides of the membrane in what solution? | Isotonic solution |
| A ______ solution is a solution that has a lower concentration of solutes. | Hypotonic |
| A ______ solution is a solution that has a higher concentration of solutes. | Hypertonic |
| The rupture of RBCs by swelling and eventually bursting due to more water molecules entering the cell than exiting the cell is called ______ | Hemolysis |
| The rupture of cells other than RBC due to placement in a hypotonic solution is referred to as ____. | lysis |
| The shrinkage of cells due to more water molecules leaving than entering the cell is called _______. | crenation |
| _______ _______ is considered an active process because energy is required for carrier proteins to move solutes across the membrane against a concentration gradient. | Active transport |
| In ______ active transport, energy derived from hydrolysis of ATP changes the shape of a carrier protein, which "pumps" a substance across a plasma membrane against its concentration gradient. | Primary |
| A _____ is a small spherical sac inside a cell. | Vesicle |
| During ___________ materials move into a cell in a vesicle formed from the plasma membrane. | Endocytosis |
| During ___________ materials move out of a cell by the fusion with the plasma membrane of vesicles formed inside the cell. | Exocytosis |
| Both endocytosis and exocytosis require energy supplied by ATP. Thus, transport in vesicles is an _____ ______. | active process |
| __________ is a form of endocytosis in which the cell engulfs large solid particles, such as worn-out cells, whole bacteria, or viruses. | Phagocytosis |
| Only a few body cells, termed _______, are able to carry out phagocytosis. | Phagocytes |
| The two main types of phagocytes are ____, located in many body tissues, and _______, a type of white blood cell. | macrophages, neutrophils |
| Phagocytosis begins when the particle binds to a plasma membrane receptor on the phagocyte, causing it to extend _______, projections of its plasma membrane and cytoplasm. | pseudopods |
| Pseudopods surround the particle outside the cell, and the membranes fuse to form a vesicle called a ______, which enters the cytoplasm. | phagosome |
| In most cases, any undigested materials in the phagosome remain indefinitely in a vesicle called a _____ ______. | residual body |
| Most body cells carry out bulk-phase endocytosis, also called _______, a form of endocytosis in which tiny droplets of extracellular fluid are taken up. | pinocytosis |
| _______ releases materials from a cell. All cells carry out this process. | Exocytosis |
| Exocytosis is especially important in two types of cells: 1. ______ cells that liberate digestive enzymes, hormones, mucus, or other secretions. 2. ____ cells that release substances called neurotransmitters. | secretory, nerve |
| During exocytosis, membrane-enclosed vesicles called ______ vesicles form inside the cell, fuse with the plasma membrane, and release their contents into the extracellular fluid. | secretory |
| Segments of the plasma membrane lost through ____ are recovered or recycled by ____. | endocytosis, exocytosis |
| ______ consists of all the cellular contents between the plasma membrane and the nucleus. | Cytoplasm |
| The _____ is the fluid portion of the cytoplasm that surrounds organelles and constitutes about 55% of total cell volume. | Cytosol (or intracellular fluid) |
| ______ is 75 to 90% water plus various dissolved and suspended components. | Cytosol (or intracellular fluid) |
| The ________ is a network of protein filaments that extends throughout the cytosol. | Cytoskeleton |
| What are the three types of filamentous proteins contribute to the cytoskeleton's structure, as well as the structure of other organelles? | Microfilaments, Intermediate filaments, and Microtubules. |
| __________ are the thinnest elements of the cytoskeleton, are composed of the protein actin, and are the most prevalent at the edge of a cell. | Microfilaments |
| Microfilaments have two general functions. What are they? | 1. Help generate movement 2. Provide mechanical support |
| _______ are nonmotile, microscopic fingerlike projections of the plasma membrane. | Microvilli |
| ______ ________ are thicker than microfilaments but thinner than microtubules. | Intermediate filaments |
| _______ _______ are found in parts of cells subject to mechanical stress, help stabilize the position of organelles such as the nucleus, and help attach cells to one another. | Intermediate filaments |
| ________ are the largest of the cytoskeleton components and are long, unbranched hollow tubes composed mainly of the protein tubulin. | Microtubules |
| _________ help determine cell shape, function in the movement of organelles such as secretory vesicles, of chromosomes during cell division, and of specialized cell projections such as cilia and flagella. | Microtubules |
| The centrosome consists of two components. What are they? | 1. A pair of centrioles 2. Pericentriolar material |
| The _____ are cylindrical structures each composed of nine clusters of three microtubules arranged in a circular pattern. | centrioles |
| Surrounding the centrioles is ______ _______, which contains hundreds of ring-shaped complexes composed of the protein tubulin. | pericentriolar material |
| __________ are the dominant components of cilia and flagella. | Microtubules |
| ______ are numerous, short, hairlike projections that extend from the surface of the cell. | Cilia |
| Each _____ contains a core of 20 microtubules surrounded by plasma membrane. | cilium |
| Each cilium is anchored to a _____ _____ just below the surface of the plasma membrane. | basal body |
| _______ are similar in structure to cilia but are typically much longer. | Flagella |
| A _______ usually moves an entire cell. | flagellum |
| _____ are the sites of protein synthesis. | Ribosomes |
| Each _______ has a high content of one type of ribonucleic acid, rRNA, and also includes more than 50 proteins. | ribosome |
| Structurally, a _______ consists of two subunits, one about half the size of the other. | ribosome |
| The large and small subunits are made separately in the ______, a spherical body inside the nucleus. | nucleolus |
| The _____ ________ is a network of membranes in the form of flattened sacs or tubules that extends from the nuclear envelope. | Endoplasmic reticulum |
| The _____ ER is continuous with the nuclear envelope and usually is folded into a series of flattened sacs with the outer surface being studded with ribosomes | Rough |
| ______ _____ extends from the rough ER to form a network of membrane tubules and does not have ribosomes on the outer surfaces of its membrane. | Smooth ER |
| Smooth ER contains unique enzymes that make it functionally more diverse than _____ _____. | Rough ER |
| The first step in the transport pathway is through an organelle called the _____ ______. | Golgi complex |
| Golgi complex consists of 3 to 20 ______, small, flattened membranous sacs with bulging edges. | cisternae |
| _______ are membrane-enclosed vesicles that form from the Golgi complex. | Lysosomes |
| The process by which entire worn-out organelles are digested is called _____. | autophagy |
| In autophagy, the organelle to be digested is enclosed by a membrane derived from the ER to create a vesicle called an ________; the vesicle then fuses with a lysosome | autophagosome |
| Lysosomal enzymes may also destroy the entire cell that contains them, a process known as ______. | autolysis |
| A group of organelles similar in structure to Lysosomes, but smaller are the ________. | peroxisomes |
| Peroxisomes, also called ______, contain several ______, enzymes that can oxidize (remove hydrogen atoms from) various organic substances. | microbodies, oxidases |
| Continuous destruction of unneeded, damaged, or faulty proteins is the function of tiny barrel-shaped structures consisting of four stacked rings of proteins around a central core called _______. | proteasomes |
| _______ generate most of the cell's ATP through aerobic respiration. | Mitochondria |
| A mitochondrion consists of an ____ _______ membrane and an ____ ______ membrane with a small fluid filled space between them. | outer mitochondrial, inner mitochondrial |
| The inner mitochondrial membrane consists of a series of folds called _____. | cristae |
| The central fluid-filled cavity of a mitochondrion, enclosed by the inner mitochondrial membrane, is the _____. | matrix |
| What organelle has its own DNA, in the form of multiple copies of a circular DNA molecule that contains 37 genes? | Mitochondria |
| Mitochondrial genes are inherited only from which parent? | Mother |
| A double membrane called the ______ ______ separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm. | nuclear envelope |
| Many openings called _____ _____ extend through the nuclear envelope. | nuclear pores |
| Inside the nucleus are one or more spherical bodies called ______, which function in producing ribosomes. | nucleoli |
| Within the nucleus are most of the cell's hereditary units, called ______. | genes |
| Genes are arranged along what? | chromosomes |
| Each _______ is a long molecule of DNA that is coiled together with several proteins | chromosome |
| This complex of DNA, proteins, and some RNA is called _____. | chromatin |
| The total genetic information carried in a cell or an organism is its _____. | genome |
| Electron micrographs reveal that a chromatin has a beads-on-a-string structure. Each bead being a _____ and consisting of double-stranded DNA wrapped twice around a core of eight proteins called histones. | nucleosome |
| ______ refers to all of an organism's protein. | Proteome |
| In the process called _____ ______, a gene's DNA is used as a template for synthesis of a specific protein. | gene expression |
| In a process called ______, the information encoded in a specific region of DNA is transcribed to produce a specific molecule of RNA. | transcription |
| In the process _____ the RNA attaches to a ribosome, where the information contained in RNA is translated into a corresponding sequence of amino acids to form a new protein molecule. | translation |
| DNA and RNA store genetic information as sets of three ________. | nucleotides |
| A sequence of three nucleotides in DNA is called a _____ ______. | base triplet |
| Each DNA base triplet is transcribed as a complementary sequence of three nucleotides called a ______. | codon |
| The _____ _____ is the set of rules that relate the base triplet sequence of DNA to the corresponding codons of RNA and the amino acids they specify. | genetic code |
| ________ _______ directs the synthesis of a protein. | Messenger RNA |
| ______ ______ joins with ribosomal proteins to make ribosomes. | Ribosomal RNA |
| ______ _______ binds to an amino acid and holds it in place on a ribosome until it is incorporated into a protein during translation. | Transfer RNA |
| One end of the tRNA carries a specific amino acid, and the opposite end consists of a triplet of nucleotides called an _________. | anticodon |
| The enzyme ____ _______ catalyzes transcription of DNA. | RNA polymerase |
| The segment of DNA where transcription begins, a special nucleotide sequence called a _______, is located near the beginnning of a gene. | promoter |
| Transcription of the DNA strand ends at a special nucleotide sequence called a ________, which specifies the end of the gene. | terminator |
| Regions within a gene called ____ do not code for parts of proteins. | Introns |
| Introns are located between regions called ____ that do code for segmetns of a protein. | exons |
| Immediately after transcription, the transcript includes information from both introns and exons and is called _________. | pre-mRNA |
| The introns are removed from pre-mRNA by _____ ______ __________, which are enzymes that cut out the introns and splice together the exons. | small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs) |
| In the process of _____, the nucleotide sequence in an mRNA molecule specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein. | translation |
| Several ribosomes attached to the same mRNA constitute a ________. | polyribose |
| _____ ______ is the process by which cells reproduce themselves. | Cell division |
| A _____ _____ is any cell of the body other than a germ cell. | somatic cell |
| A _____ ____ is a gamete or any precursor cell destined to become a gamete. | germ cell |
| In somatic cell division a cell undergoes a nuclear division called ______, and a cytoplasmic division called ______ to produce two identical cells. | mitosis, cytokinesis |
| _________ ______ ______ is the mechanism that produces gametes, the cells needed to form the next generation of sexually reproducing organsisms. | Reproductive cell division |
| Reproductive cell division consists of a special two-step division called ______. | meiosis |
| The ___ ____ is an orderly sequence of events by which somatic cell duplicates its contents and divides in two. | cell cycle |
| The two chromosomes that make up each pair are called ________ _______, or ________; they contain similar genes arranged in the same or almost the same order. | homologous chromosomes or homologs |
| Because somatic cells contain two sets of chromosomes they are called ______ cells, symbolized 2n. | diploid |
| During _______ the cell replicates its DNA. | Interphase |
| Interphase is a state of high ______ activity; it is during this time that the cell does most of its growing. | metabolic |
| The _____ phase of the cell cycle consists of a nuclear division (_____) and a cytoplasmic division (______) to form two identical cells | mitotic, mitosis, cytokinesis |
| During early ______, the chromatin fibers condense and shorten into chromosomes that are visible under the light microscope. | prophase |
| Each prophase chromosome consists of a pair of identical strands called _______. | chromatids |
| A constricted region called a ______ holds the chromatid pair together. | centromere |
| At the outside of each centromere is a protein complex known as the _______. | kinetochore |
| Later in prophase, tubulins in the pericentriolar material of the centrosomes start to form the _____ _____, a football-shaped assembly of microtubules that attach to the kinetochore | mitotic spindle |
| The _____ ______ is responsible for the separation of chromatids to opposite poles of the cell. | mitotic spindle |
| During _____, the microtubules of the mitotic spindle align the centromeres of the chromatid pairs at the exact center of the mitotic spindle. This midpoint region is called the _______ _______. | Metaphase, metaphase plate |
| During _______, the centromeres split, separating the two members of each chromatid pair, which move toward opposite poles of the cell. | Anaphase |
| The final stage of mitosis, ______, begins after chromosomal movement stops. | Telophase |
| The process of cytokinesis usually begins in late anaphase with the formation of a ______ ______, a slight indention in the plasma membrane, and is completed after telophase. | cleavage furrow |
| ____ microfilaments that lie just inside the plasma membrane form a contractile ring that pulls the plasma membrane passively inward and ultimately pinches the cell in two. | Actin |
| Within a cell, there are enzymes called ______ _______ _______ _______ (Cdks) that can transfer a phosphate group from ATP to a protein to activate the protein. | cyclin-dependent protein kinases |
| Switching the Cdks on and off is the responsibility of cellular proteins called _____. | cyclins |
| ______ is an orderly, genetically programmed death. | Apoptosis |
| _______ is a pathological type of cell death that results from tissue injury. | Necrosis |
| ______ is the reproductive cell division that occurs in the gonads and produces gametes. | Meiosis |
| Gametes contain a single set of 23 chromosomes and thus are _____ cells represented as n. | haploid |
| Unlike mitosis, which is complete after a single round, meiosis occurs in two successive stages: _______ and ________. | meiosis I and meiosis II |
| Meiosis I, also called _____ ______, begins once chromosomal replication is complete and consists of four phases: _____, _____, ______, and _____. | Reduction division prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, and telophase I |
| ______ is an extended phase in which the chromosomes shorten and thicken, the nuclear envelope and nucleoli disappear, and the mitotic spindle forms. | Prophase I |
| One event that is not seen in mitotic prophase occuring during prophase I of meiosis is a process where the two sister chromatids of each pair of homologous chromosomes pair off, an event called ______. | synapsis |
| One event that is not seen in mitotic prophase occuring during prophase I of meiosis is a process where parts of the chromatids of two homologous chromosomes may be exchanged with one another, termed ______ ______. | crossing-over |
| Crossing-over results in _____ ______, which is the formation of new combinations of genes. | genetic recombination |
| The four chromatids resulting from synapsis form a structure called a _____. | tetrad |
| In ______ the tetrads formed by the homologous pairs of chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate of the cell. | Metaphase I |
| In ______, the members of each homologous pair of chromosomes separate as they are pulled to opposite poles of the cell by the microtubules attached to the centromeres. | Anaphase I |
| The net result of ________ is that each resulting cell contains the haploid number or chromosomes because it contains only one member of each pair of the homologous chromosomes present in the starting cell. | Meiosis I |
| The second stage of meiosis, _______, also consists of four phases: _______, _______, _______, and _______. | Meiosis II Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, and Telophase II |
| During _______, each of the two haploid cells formed during meiosis I divides; the net result is four haploid gametes that are genetically different from the original diploid starting cell. | Meiosis II |
| The body of an average human adult is composed of nearly _______ cells. All of these cells can be classified into about ____ different cell types. | 100 trillion 200 |
| _____ is a normal process accompanied by a progressive alteration of the body's homeostatic adaptive responses. | Aging |
| The specialized branch of medicine that deals with the medical problems and care of elderly persons is _______. | geriatrics |
| ________ is the scientific study of the process and problems associated with aging. | Gerontology |
| ________ are specific DNA sequences found only at the tips of each chromosome that protect the tips of chromosomes from erosion and from sticking to one another. | Telomeres |
| In most normal body cells each cycle of cell division shortens the ________, which are the protective DNA sequences at the tips of the chromosomes. | telomeres |
| ____ ______ produce oxidative damage to lipids, proteins, or nucleic acids by "stealing" an electron to accompany their unpaired electrons. | Free radicals |
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