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Water-solub vitamins
Water-soluble vitamins
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| How many water-soluble vitamins are there? | There are 9. Eight are B-complex vitamins and the ninth is vitamin C. |
| How are all water-soluble vitamins absorbed, transported, and stored? | They are found attached to proteins and need to be hydrolyzed. Then, they pass through the small intestine by passive diffusion and by active transport when intakes are low. The absorbed vitamins are then transported through the portal vein to the liver. |
| Functions of water-soluble vitamins | They work as coenzymes that unlock energy captured in the energy nutrients. Some are necessary for nerve function, protein synthesis, and the formation red blood cells. |
| How long are water-soluble vitamins stored? | They are not stored for longer than a day. They are excreted in urine. |
| How can water-soluble vitamins be lost and destroyed? | Exposure to air, light, pH, and heat. |
| What is Thiamin (vitamin B1)? | Contains an amine ring, which includes nitrogen, and a thiazole ring that contains sulfur. |
| The active coenzyme form of Thiamin? | Thiamin pyrophosphate. This is achieved by adding two phosphate groups to the dietary thiamin molecule. |
| What destroys thiamin? | Sensitive to changes in pH. Using baking soda during cooking destroys thamin. Using acid-based foods protects the vitamin from destruction. |
| Metabolic functions of thiamin | Participates in the production of ATP in several different reactions. Assists in converting three branched-chain amino acids into acetyl CoA. Synthesizes pentoses. May participate in the manufacture of specific chemicals in conducting nerve signals. |
| Food sources of thiamin | Whole grain, enriched breads, ready-to-eat cereals, pasta, brown rice, enriched rice, and nuts. Lean pork is the densest. |
| Thiamin toxicity | There are no known toxicity symptoms from consuming too much thiamin. |
| Thiamin deficiency | Causes a diseases called beriberi. Symptoms are loss of appetite, weight loss, memory loss, confusion, muscle weakness, and peripheral neuropathy. |
| Thiamin deficiency causes | Insufficient dietary intake, malabsorption, alcoholism, or prolonged diarrhea. |
| Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) | Composed of a side chain and a ring structure. Coenzyme form is flavin mononucleotide (FMN). |
| What destroys riboflavin? | It degrades in the presence of ultraviolet light. Milk contained in glass containers mostly destroys the riboflavin content. |
| Metabolic function of riboflavin | FMN and FAD are the carriers of high-energy electrons generated in metabolic reactions. It enhances the function of other B vitamins. A severe riboflavin deficiency may affect many different enzyme systems. |
| Food sources of riboflavin | Milk, yogurt, cereal, grains, quinoa, rice, and oats. |
| Riboflavin toxicity | Excessive amounts are excreted. No upper limit for riboflavin has been determined. |
| Riboflavin deficiency | Deficiency is called ariboflavinosis. Symptoms include inflammation of the stomach and tongue, and cracked and sore lips with cracks at the corners of the mouth. Riboflavin deficiencies also alter iron metabolism and the synthesis of hemoglobin. |
| Niacin | Generic term for nicotinic acid and nicotinamide. |
| Coenzyme form of niacin | Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) are converted from niacin in the liver |
| What destroys niacin? | Nothing destroys niacin per se. But it can leach if food is cooked or soaked in water. |
| Metabolic functions of niacin | NAD+ and NADP are key to the metabolism of glucose, protein, fat, and alcohol. Both participate in oxidation-reduction reactions. Niacin aids in vitamin C and folate metabolism. Keeps skin cells healthy and the digestive system functioning properly. |
| Used to treat high blood pressure | nicotinic acid. 2-4 grams which is 40 times the upper limit of 35 milligrams per day for niacin. Individuals should never consume this unless a physician prescribes it and monitors them. |
| Food sources for niacin | Whole grain breads and bread products, fortified cereals, protein-rich foods. Or formed from excess amounts of the amino acid tryptophan. |
| Niacin toxicity | Overconsuming niacin through supplements can cause a reddish coloring to the face called flushing. Excess niacin can also cause nausea and vomiting and heartburn, be toxic to the liver, and raise blood glucose levels. |
| Niacin deficiency | Disease called pellagra. Causes dermatitis, dementia, diarrhea, and death. Can occur among people who abuse alcohol and have a very poor diet. |
| Pantothenic acid | Makes up part of coenzyme A. Recall that is coenzyme A makes combines with a two-carbon acetyl group to become acetyl CoA, the gateway molecule in energy metabolism |
| Metabolic functions of pantothenic acid | Participates in the decarboxylation of pyruvate that produces acetyl CoA, and participates in protein metabolism by converting amino acids to intermediate substrates for the TCA cycle. The synthesis of cholesterol, steroid hormones, and acetylcholine. |
| Food sources of pantothenic acid | They are found in almost very food. Whole grain cereals, nuts and legumes, peanut butter, meat, milk, and eggs. |
| What destroys pantothenic acid | Can be destroyed by heat, so refined grains and foods that are processed, such as frozen or canned vegetables, fish, and meat are lower in pantothenic acid than their fresh counterparts. |
| Pantothenic acid toxicity | No known adverse effects |
| Pantothenic acid deficiency | Experience nausea, fatigue, vomiting, numbness, muscle cramps, and difficulty walking. |
| What is biotin? | Made up of sulfur-containing double rings and a side chain. |
| How is biotin digested and absorbed? | The enzyme biotinidase releases biotin from food in the small intestine, allowing the free biotin to be absorbed by active transport. Once absorbed into the portal vein, the liver stores it in small amounts. |
| Metabolic functions of biotin | Functions as a coenzyme for enzymes that add carbon dioxide to compounds involved in energy metabolism. Biotin also plays a role in DNA replication. It facilitates cell development and growth. |
| Food sources of biotin | Even a small amount of peanuts (1/4 of a cup) provides more than 60% of the AI. Yeast, egg yolks, whole grains, liver and other organ meats, and fish. |
| Biotin toxicity | Little evidence, even at doses as high as 200 milligrams per day. |
| Biotin deficiency | Bacteria in the GI tract synthesize some biotin so they may be a reason as to why biotin deficiencies are rare. Biotin deficiencies may occur with patients receiving total nutrition intravenously when the GI tract is not functioning. |
| Symptoms of a biotin deficiency | Dermatitis, conjunctivitis, hair loss, and alterations in the central nervous system resulting in lethargy, hallucinations, and depression. |
| What is vitamin B6? | Collective name for several related compounds. Pyridoxine is a major form found in plant foods. Pyridoxal and pyridoxamine are found in animal food sources |
| How is vitamin B6 absorbed and activated? | Absorbed in small intestine by passive diffusion. It is eventually transported to the liver and is activated by adding a phosphate group to form pyridoxal phosphate (PLP). |
| How is pyridoxal phosphate (PLP) stored? | This active form of vitamin B6 is attached to enzymes in the muscles and in smaller amounts in the liver, brain, spleen, and kidneys. |
| Metabolic functions of Vitamin B6 | Act as a coenzyme for more than 100 enzymes, most of which are involved in protein metabolism. A key player in glucose metabolism and red blood synthesis. Interacts with other nutrients such as riboflavin, niacin, and zinc. |
| Vitamin B6 and Amino Acid metabolism | Almost every amino acid need PLP for its metabolism. Assists in converting the amino acid tryptophan to niacin. |
| Vitamin B6 and Carbohydrate Metabolism | Participates in glycogenolysis in the muscles, thus enabling the body to tap into its glycogen stores for energy. It activates enzymes involved gluconeogenesis to produce glucose from noncarbohydrate compounds |
| Other metabolic functions of Vitamin B6 | It activates the enzyme responsible for the first step in hemoglobin synthesis and to keep the immune system happy and healthy. |
| Food sources of Vitamin B6 | Fortified ready-to-eat cereals, meat, fish, poultry, many vegetables and fruits, nuts, peanut butter, and other legumes. |
| Vitamin B6 toxicity | Because vitamin B6 attaches to enzymes in the muscle and other tissues, it remains in the body, and excess intake can be toxic. Taking vitamin B6 supplements have no particular benefits. |
| Symptoms of Vitamin B6 | Sore tongue, inflammation of the skin, depression, confusion, and microcytic hypochromic anemia. This anemia results in small red blood cells that look pale in comparison to healthy red blood cells. |
| Vitamin B6 Deficiency | Alcohol depletes the body of vitamin B6 for those who consume too much alcohol. |
| What is folate? | Folate is found in many different foods and the synthetic form is folic acid is added to foods and found is supplements. Folic acid is easier to absorb than the natural form, but both forms perform equally well. |
| Absorption of folate | Most folate found in foods is in polyglutamate form. To be absorbed all but one of the glutamates must be removed from the side chain to form monoglutamate. Folate and folic acids go through multiple reductions to become 5-methyltetrahydrofolate. |
| Storage and transportation of folate (and folic acid) | 5-methyltetrahydrofolate is the form of folate (and folic acid) that is transported through the bloodstream to the liver. A small amount of folate is stored in the liver, but the majority is excreted in the urine. |
| Metabolic functions of folate | The active form of folate acts as a coenzyme in the transfer of single-carbon compounds to other compounds. Folate accepts single-carbon compounds on the pteridine ring of THF and then donates the single-carbon compounds to other structures. |
| DNA and Amino Acid synthesis and Folate | Folate plays important roles in preventing birth defects to fighting cancer and heart disease. Folate also helps the body use amino acids and is needed to help red blood cells divide and increase in adequate numbers. |
| Neural Tube Development and Folate | Folate plays an extremely important role in during pregnancy. Cells divide rapidly during the embryonic period and a folate deficiency at this time can result in a neural tube defect. The neural tube is the primitive form of the spinal cord and the brain. |
| Anencephaly | Neural tube defect that results in the absence of major parts of the brain. |
| Spina bifida | Serious birth defects in which a portion of the spinal cord and its protective membranes (meninges) protrude from the vertebral column |
| Folate and Cancer risk | Folate has been shown to help reduce the risk of colon cancer, and adults who are deficient in dietary folate have a higher risk of developing colon cancer. There's also an association between folate and an increased risk of breast and pancreatic cancers. |
| Food sources of folate | Folate is destroyed when exposed to light and heat. Folic acid is required by law to be added to enriched cereals and grains, pastas, breads, rice, and flours. Dark green leafy vegetables are the best natural sources such as spinach and broccoli. |
| Folate toxicity | No danger in consuming excessive amounts of folate. Consuming too much folic acid can be harmful |
| Folate deficiency | It interferes with normal red blood cell division and results in abnormally large and immature red blood cells. They eventually grow into mature, abnormally large red blood cells called macrocytes. Macrocytic anemia causes a person to feel tired and weak. |
| What is vitamin B12? | Also called cobalamin because it contains cobalt. Cyanocobalamin is the form found in food. Methylcobalamin is the active form. |
| Vitamin B12 Absorption | Pepsin and intrinsic factor releases Vitamin B12 from the food |
| Vitamin B12 Storage and Excretion | Excess amounts are excreted in the bile and urine. Unlike other water-soluble vitamins, vitamin B12 is stored in the body. |
| Metabolic functions of Vitamin B12 part 1 | Functions as two enzymes. Methylcobalamin converts homocysteine to the amino acid methionine. Methionine is the methyl group used in DNA and RNA synthesis. A high concentration of homocysteine is a risk factor of atherosclerosis. |
| Metabolic functions of Vitamin B12 part 2 | The coenzyme form of vitamin B12 converts intermediate substances in the TCA cycle. Necessary for energy metabolism. |
| Relationship between folate and Vitamin B12 | Vitamin B12 activates folate and in turn is activated. Both play a role in keeping red blood cells healthy. |
| Vitamin B12 and Age | The body's ability absorb naturally occurring Vitamin B12 diminishes with age due to pepsin unavailability. |
| Food sources of Vitamin B12 | Only in foods from animal sources. Meat, fish, poultry, eggs, and dairy products. Found in fortified soy milk and some ready-to-eat cereals. Using microwave to heat up Vitamin B12-rich foods, it reduces it by 30-40%. |
| Vitamin B12 Toxicity | No known risks because when you take too much the body doesn't absorb it. |
| Vitamin B12 Deficiency part 1 | Is a result of inadequate dietary intake, lack of adequate HCl, insufficient pancreatic enzymes, and pernicious anemia (causes lack of intrinsic factor). |
| Vitamin B12 Deficiency part 2 | A deficiency causes macrocytic anemia but diagnosing and handling this anemia has to be done carefully because folate is also involved in maintaining blood cells. Long term consequence is nerve damage |
| What is Vitamin C? | Similar to glucose in that it's a six-carbon molecule. Also known as ascorbic acid. |
| Vitamin C absorption | Absorbed all along the small intestine by active transport. Taking too much at a time, will decrease the amount absorbed. Vitamin C is not stored. |
| Metabolic functions of Vitamin C | It differs from the B vitamins in that it doesn't act as a coenzyme in energy metabolism. |
| Vitamin C and Collagen synthesis | Essential for the formation of the fibrous protein collagen. Very necessary for skin, bones, teeth, cartilage, tendons, and blood vessels. A vitamin C deficient diet affects the entire body |
| Vitamin C as an antioxidant | It is similar to beta-carotene and vitamin E. May help reduce the risk of chronic disease such as heart disease and cancer |
| Vitamin C and Iron Absorption | Enhances the absorption of nonheme iron. When people consume food with nonheme iron, it acts as a reducing agent, as a result improving the absorption. Also boosts the absorption of copper and chromium |
| Vitamin C and the Immune System | Enables the body to make white blood cells. |
| Vitamin C and Stress | The cells of the adrenal glands contain high amounts of vitamin C, which is released after cortisol during a response to stress. Vitamin C and stress as a relationship is being studied by researchers. |
| Other functions of Vitamin C | It donates an electron in the conversion of tryptophan and tyrosine to two neurotransmitters, serotonin and norepinephrine. Helps convert cholesterol to bile and helps break down histamine. Essential in the synthesis of thyroxine. |
| Food sources of Vitamin C | Consuming fruits and vegetables. With orange juice and grapefruit juice being the most popular sources in the diet. One serving of either juice about meets the daily needs. Tomatoes, peppers, potatoes, broccoli, oranges, and cantaloupe. |
| Vitamin C toxicity | Taking over 2,000 daily can cause nausea, stomach cramps, and diarrhea. Can lead to the formation of kidney stones. Vitamin C supplementation can result in false positive and false negative in medical tests. |
| People with hemochromatosis... | ...should avoid excessive amounts of vitamin C because their body can store too much iron. Iron toxicity can damage many organs, including the liver and the heart. |
| Vitamin C deficiency | Scurvy result in bleeding gums and a skin rash. Scurvy in the 21st century is associated with poverty |
| Vitamin C and the Common Cold | Supplementing with Vitamin C does not affect the incidence of the common cold neither is it an effective treatment to reduce severity of the cold once contracted. It somewhat influences the duration of the cold. |
| Other vitamin-like compounds | They are usually synthesized but illnesses reduce their amounts. Thus, they become essential in the diet under certain circumstances. |
| Choline and the Liver | It is part of the phospholipid structure that makes up cell membranes, it functions in liver metabolism, it is a precursor for the acetylcholine, it assists in the transport of lipids as part of the VLDL, and plays a key role in fetal development. |
| Choline food sources | Milk, liver, eggs, and peanuts. It is so widely available in foods. Too much can cause sweating, vomiting, and hypotension. Can cause the body to emit an unpleasant fishy odor as it tries to excrete the excess. |
| Carnitine | Needed to properly utilize fat. Synthesized from the amino acid lysine and methionine. Abundant in foods from animal sources. Conditional vitamin. |
| Lipoic acid | Helps cells generate energy. It is found in a variety of plant and animal foods. Synthesized from short-chain fatty acids. Conditional vitamin |
| Inositol | It is needed to keep cell membranes healthy. Abundant in plant-based foods. Healthy people can synthesize enough from glucose. Conditional vitamin |
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