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Bio 12 Exam 2
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| What makes up a cell? | water and carbon |
| Protons have a _______ charge. | positive charge |
| Neutrons have a ________ charge. | Neutral or no charge |
| Electrons have a ________ charge. | negative charge |
| same sign +/+ or -/- | atoms repel |
| opposite sign +/- | atoms attract |
| elements consists of | one kind of atom |
| 98% of living matter is made up of what elements? | carbon oxygen hydrogen phosphorus nitrogen sulfur |
| the other 2% of living matter is made up of what? | sodium and potassium for nerve function calcium for signaling iodine for hormones magnesium for binding chlorophyll (important for photosynthesis) |
| molecules form when | two or more atoms are joined together by bonds |
| carbon is | organic |
| isomers are | have the same molecular formula but have different structures |
| Enantiomers are | isomers that are mirror images of each other |
| macromolecules are | large molecules |
| sugar is | carbohydrate |
| fatty acid | lipid |
| an amino acids is | a protein |
| nucleotides | are nucleic acid |
| physical properties of an atom | depends on the number of protons, neutrons and electrons contained |
| atomic number | the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom |
| mass number (atomic mass) | number of protons + number of neutrons |
| number of electrons | change, if neutral same as number of protons |
| isotopes | number of neutron may vary among atoms of a particular elements |
| 1st shell | 2 electrons |
| 2nd shell | 8 electrons |
| 3rd shell | can hold up to 18 electrons |
| ionic bond | the attraction between oppositely charged ions |
| covalent bond | sharing of electron pairs in the outermost shell |
| hydrogen bond | attraction between hydrogen and strongly electronegative atom |
| bond energy | amount of energy needed to separate bonds under physiological condition |
| orientation | length, angle, and direction between a given pair of the same elements |
| single bond | 1 pair of electrons being shared |
| double bond | 2 pairs of electrons being shared |
| equal sharing of electrons | nonpolar covalent bond |
| unequal sharing of electrons | polar covalent bond |
| noncovalent bonds | ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, van der waals forces, hydrophobic interactions |
| heat capacity | how much heat it takes to raise a material one degree |
| heat of vaporization | amount of energy required to convert a molecule from a liquid to a gas |
| cohesion | capacity of water molecules to resist coming apart from one another when under tension |
| adhesion | water molecules sticking to another surface |
| surface tension | ability of water to hold together with things on top, water bugs on top |
| hydrophilic | polar substance attract to water, partial negative attracted a partial positive |
| hydrophobic | non-polar substances clump together away from polar substance |
| hydrophobic interactions | interaction of nonpolar substances in the presence of polar substances (especially water, weak) |
| van der Waals forces | interaction of electrons of non-polar substances, weak, short distance |
| if functional groups change shape | the function changes as well |
| hydroxyl | polar, hydrogen bonds with water, enables linkage to other molecules by condensation |
| Aldehyde | carbon and hydrogen double bond, releasing energy, building molecules |
| keto | carbon double bond to hydrogen, carbhohydrates, energy reactions |
| carboxyl | acidic, condensation reactions, energy releasing |
| amino | basic, takes protons, positive H, condensation reaction |
| phsophate | acidic, can release a lot of energy when broken off from another phosphatase, localization and function of proteins |
| sulfhydryl | stabilizing protein structure , disulfide bridges |
| methyl | non-polar, popular in macromolecules, influences where resides in the cells |
| chemical reaction occurs when | atoms have sufficient energy to combine or change their bonding patterns |
| condensation reaction | 2 molecules bond together to form larger molecules, releases water |
| hydrolysis reaction | add water, breaks bond |
| metabolism | sum of all chemical reactions occurring in a biological system at a given time |
| forms of energy | chemical, electrical, heat, light, mechanical |
| potential energy | stored energy |
| kinetic energy | energy of movement, change actually occuring |
| delta G | amount of work that system can perform |
| positive delta G | unfavorable reaction (requires energy) |
| negative delta G | favorable, releases energy |
| catabolic reaction | breaking down of complex molecules, releasing energy |
| anabolic reaction | link simple molecules to form more complex ones, requires energy |
| activation energy | amount of energy required to get reactants to products |
| lowering activation energy | makes it easier and requires less energy to get reactants to products |
| 1st law of thermodynamics | Energy cannot be created or destroyed, total amount of energy stays the same |
| 2nd law of thermodynamics | total energy is same, usable energy decrease |
| entropy | amount of usable energy, decreases reaction after reaction |
| structure of a carbohydrate | CmH2nOn |
| carbon is linked to | hydrogen or carboxyl groups |
| biological roles of carbohydrates | store energy, transport stored energy, structural molecules, recognition and signaling molecules |
| monosaccharies have | up to seven carbon atoms |
| 5 carbon pentoses | ribose and deoxyribose |
| 6 carbon hexoses | mannose, galactose, glucose, fructose |
| bonds between monosaccharides | glycosidic bonds |
| oligosaccharidese | 8-20 monomers bonded together, bonded to proteins and lipids |
| cellulose | in plants cell wall, linear, polar covalent linked, lots of hydrogen bonds |
| starch | in leucoplasts, branched |
| glycogen | in animals, highly branched, energy storage, produced in liver and transported to muscles |
| lipids examples | fats, phospholipids, steroids |
| properties of lipids | hydrocarbons, insoluble in water, polar, van der waals interactions |
| functions of lipids | store energy in bonds, structure, thermal insulation |
| triglycerides | 3 fatty acids |
| fatty acids | non-polar hydrocarbon attached to polar carboxyl group |
| fats are | solid at room temp |
| oils are | liquid at room temperature |
| saturated fats | no double bonds, rigid, straight, non-polar, less fluid and packed tightly |
| Unsaturated fats | some double bonds, not packed tightly, bends, more fluid, lower melting point |
| phospholipds | found in membranes, fatty acid bound to glycerol, phosphate containing compound, amphipathic |
| amphipathic | one region of molecules in non-polar and one region is polar |
| sterols | molecules with four attached rings, 3 with 6 carbons, 1 with 5 carbons |
| cholesterol | essential components of animal cell membrane, amount influences how fluid membrane is, lipid |
| hormones | type of steroid |
| nucleic acids | polymers that store, transmit and express hereditary information |
| types of nucleic acid | DNA and RNA |
| nucleotides are made of | sugar, phosphate, nitrogen base |
| nitrogen containing bases | adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, uracil |
| pyrimidines | cytosine, thymine, uracil one ring |
| purine | adenine and guanine 2 rings |
| DNA | deoxyribonucleic acid double strand thymine |
| RNA | ribose, single strand, can fold in on itself, uracil |
| adding nucleotides to the existing chain | condensation reaction |
| phosphodiester bond | nucleotides covalently linked together |
| oligonucleotides | 20 or less nucleotides, RNA primers in DNA replication, RNA molecules that regulate expression of genes |
| polynucleotide | more than 20 nucleotides |
| adenine pairs with | Thymine |
| cytosine pairs with | Guanine |
| base pair bonds are | hydrogen bonds |
| DNA structure | bases always on inside anti-parallel |
| replications | involves entire molecule, replicates itself |
| transcription | uses DNA as template to make RNA, semi-conservative |
| translation | turns RNA into polypeptides |
| gene expression | transcription and translations of specific genes |
| functions of proteins | make enzymes, defensive proteins, regulatory proteins, receptor proteins, storage, structure, transport, genetic regulatory proteins |
| amino acids have | amino R group, carboxyl group, central carbon |
| R group | side chain |
| R group types | charges, hydrophilic polar, hydrophilic, hydrogen bonds, non-polar, hydorphobic |
| amino acids are linked together by | carboxyl group and hydroxyl group, condensation reaction |
| peptide bond | covalent bond, sharing carbon from carboxyl and nitrogen from amino group |
| amino acids are added from the N terminus to the | C terminus |
| proteins are comprised of | 1 or more polypeptides chains |
| levels of structure of proteins | primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary |
| primary protein structure | sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain, determines all other structures, peptide bonds |
| secondary protein structure | alpha helix and beta pleated sheet, polar, hydrogen bonds |
| alpha helix | polar r groups exposed, hydrogen bonds keep twisting and going, can be amphipathic |
| beta pleated sheet | hydrogen bonds, separate or same polypeptides chains like paper fans |
| tertiary protein structure | 3-D structure, has an interior and exterior, want exterior to be mostly hydrophilic, has all bond types |
| disulfide bridges | stabilize protein structure in tertiary proteins |
| quaternary protein structure | 2 or more folded polypeptide chains, ionic, hydrophobic, hydrogen bonds |
| protein structure can change due to | temperature, pH, high concentrations of polar substances, non-polar substance |
| denaturing of proteins | breaking down protein structure, disrupts all except primary structure |
| protein localization | may change after a signal/modifications is received |
| functions of membranes | compartmentalization, scaffold for biochemical activities, selectively permeable, transport, response to external signals, intercellular interactions |
| components of biological membranes | lipids, proteins, carbohydrates |
| fluid mosaic model | mixture of all components, not a lot of covalent bonds |
| membrane proteins | move materials through the membrane, intercellular recognition and adhesion, receive signals from the environment |
| carbohydrates in the cell membrane | attached to lipids or proteins, recognize other molecules, usually on outside of the cell |
| how can lipids vary in a membrane | length of fatty acid chain, degree of unsaturation, amount of double bonds, amount of cholesterol |
| cholesterol | polar hydroxyl group, very stiff, decreases membrane fluidity |
| membrane less fluid | higher temperature |
| membrane more fluid | lower temperature |
| membrane movement | is more likely to occur within a section |
| peripheral proteins | only make contact with phosphate heads, hydrophilic, polar |
| integral proteins | can be partially or fully through membrane, non polar parts |
| protein movement in membranes | some are free to move around, some are anchored |
| carbohydrates in cell membrane | glycolipid, glycoprotein, proteoglycan |
| functions of carbohydrates in cell | cell communications and adhesion, usually covalent bonds |
| passive transport | does not require energy, down concentration gradient |
| active transport | requires energy, up concentration gradient |
| factors that determine how fast a substance diffuses | size/diameter of molecules, temperature of solution, concentration gradient steepness |
| simple difusion | small, nonpolar molecules, gases, lipid solubles |
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