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AP Bio Chapters 2,3
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| matter | anything with mass that takes up space; makes up organisms |
| element | a substance that can't be broken down to other substances by chemical reactions; make up matter |
| compound | substance consisting of two or more elements in a fixed ratio |
| emergent properties | having different physical/chemical properties from the compound's constituent elements |
| essential elements | necessary for an organism's health and reproduction |
| trace elements | only needed by an organism in a small amount; less than .01% of human mass |
| atom | smallest unit of matter with same properties of a specific element |
| subatomic particles | make up atoms; over one hundred have been discovered |
| neutrons | electrically neutral; no charge |
| protons | one unit of positive charge |
| electrons | one unit of negative charge |
| atomic nucleus | core of atom full of protons and neutrons |
| dalton | used to measure the mass of atoms, subatomic particles, and molecules; same as atomic mass unit (amu) |
| atomic number | number of protons an atom contains, which is unique to each element |
| mass number | number of protons and neutrons together |
| atomic mass | total mass of an atom; close, but slightly different from atomic number |
| isotopes | atoms of the same element with different neutrons |
| radioactive isotope | when an atom is unstable, so the nucleus decays and gives off particles and energy |
| energy | the capacity to cause change; ability to do work |
| potential energy | energy matter possesses due to its location or structure |
| electron shells | house electrons and represent different distances from the nucleus and energy levels |
| periods | rows (horizontal) in the Periodic Table that represent the number of electron shells each element has |
| valence electrons | electrons in the outermost shell (valence shell) |
| chemical bonds | attractions holding atoms together after completing valence shells |
| covalent bond | the sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms |
| molecule | two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds |
| valence | bonding capacity of an atom that equals the number of needed electrons to fill a valence shell |
| compound | merging of two different elements |
| electronegativity | attraction of an atom for a covalent bond's electrons; strong means it pulls shared electrons toward itself |
| nonpolar covalent bond | when two atoms of the same element are bonded and thus have equal pull on the electrons |
| polar covalent bond | when one atom has more of a pull on the shared electrons than the other |
| ions | when one atom is more electronegative than the other and takes its electrons, leaving them both charged |
| cation | positively charged atom |
| anion | negatively charged atom |
| ionic bond | made from the attraction of cations and anions |
| ionic compounds | formed by ionic bonds; salts |
| hydrogen bond | when a partially positive covalent bonded hydrogen atom bonds with another electronegative partially negative atom |
| Van der Waals Interactions | formed when any atom or molecule has come too close together and their electrons have congregated in one part to create a brief charge; weak bonds |
| chemical reactions | change matter composition by making/breaking chemical bonds |
| chemical equilibrium | when reactants and products reach a concentration ratio that stabilizes the matter |
| polar molecule | when a molecule's charge is unevenly distributed (water) |
| cohesion | when hydrogen bonds hold water molecules together into a substance |
| adhesion | when one substance clings to another |
| surface tension | the measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break a liquid's surface |
| kinetic energy | the energy of motion; anything moving has kinetic energy |
| thermal energy | associated with random movement from atoms and molecules; total kinetic energy so volume matters |
| temperature | average kinetic energy of molecules, volume being irrelevant |
| heat | when thermal energy transfers locations because things with different temperatures absorb/lose thermal energy until they are the same temperature |
| calorie (cal) | amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1g of water by 1 degree C; equal to 4.184 J |
| joule (J) | equal to .239 cal |
| specific heat | amount of heat needed to be absorbed/lost by 1g of a substance to gain/lose 1 degree C |
| heat of vaporization | quantity of heat a liquid must absorb for 1g to be converted from liquid to gas |
| evaporative cooling | liquid's temperature decreases as it evaporates because hotter molecules are leaving the overall liquid |
| solution | a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances; same concentration everywhere |
| solvent | dissolving agent of a solution |
| solute | substance dissolved |
| aqueous solution | any solution where water is the solvent |
| hydration shell | water molecules surrounding and isolating ions to dissolve them |
| hydrophilic | water-loving substance |
| hydrophobic | water-repulsing substance (nonionic and nonpolar) |
| molecular mass | sum of the masses of all the atoms in a molecule |
| mole (mol) | 6.02 x 10^23 daltons in one gram (Avogadro's number) |
| molarity | number of moles of solute per liter of solution |
| acid | a substance increasing the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution |
| base | a substance reducing the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution |
| pH | the negative logarithm (base 10) of the hydrogen ion concentration (pH = -log[H+]) |
| buffer | a substance minimizing the concentration changes of H+ and OH- in a substance by adding or taking H+ when there are too few or too many |
| ocean acidification | when extra CO2 in the atmosphere is absorbed by the ocean which combines with H2O to form H2CO3 which lowers the pH of the ocean |
| organic compound | a compound containing carbon |
| macromolecules | molecules that are abnormally big (carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acid) |
| hydrocarbons | organic molecules made of only carbon and hydrogen |
| isomers | compounds with the same numbers of atoms of the same elements, but with different structures and properties |
| structural isomers | when a molecular formula is the same, but covalent bonds were arranged differently, changing the structure |
| cis-trans isomers | when atoms are spaced differently in a molecule |
| enantiomers | isomers that mirror each other due to the connection of an asymmetric carbon |
| functional groups | chemical groups affecting molecular function by being active in chemical reactions |
| adenosine triphosphate (ATP) | complicated organic phosphate that is crucial to cell function |
| polymer | long molecule made of similar/identical building blocks in a chain of covalent bonds |
| monomers | the building blocks of polymers |
| enzymes | specialized macromolecules that speed up chemical reactions (usually proteins) |
| dehydration reaction | when monomers are covalently bonded by losing a water molecule (synthesizes polymers) |
| hydrolysis | disassembles polymers by adding a water molecule |
| carbohydrates | include sugars and polymers of sugars; simplest are monosaccharides (simple sugars) and disaccharides are two monosaccharides connected by a covalent bond |
| monosaccharides | molecular formulas with unit CH2O |
| disaccharide | two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage |
| glycosidic linkage | a covalent bond made by a dehydration reaction |
| polysaccharides | macromolecules made of hundreds or thousands of monosaccharides connected by glycosidic linkages |
| starch | polymer of glucose monomers stored as granules in cells |
| glycogen | polymer of glucose like amylopectin but with more branching; stored in liver and muscle cells |
| cellulose | component of cell walls, structural polysaccharide and polymer of glucose with 1-4 glycosidic linkages |
| chitin | carbohydrate used by arthropods to build exoskeletons |
| lipids | compounds that are hydrophobic; have some polar bonds with oxygen but mostly consist of hydrocarbon regions |
| fat | made from dehydration reactions, but they are not polymers (made from glycerol and fatty acids) |
| glycerol | hydroxyl groups after each carbon |
| fatty acids | long carbon skeleton with a carboxyl group at the end as the functional group |
| triacylglycerol | one molecule of glycerol and 3 of fatty acids; joined by an ester linkage that connects a hydroxyl and carboxyl group |
| saturated fatty acid | when no double bonds exist between carbons, so molecule is saturated with hydrogen |
| unsaturated fatty acid | one or more double bonds between carbons so less hydrogen (cis double bond, so causes a kink in the chain) |
| trans fats | unsaturated fats with trans double bonds made by synthetically adding hydrogen (linked to coronary heart disease) |
| phospholipid | component of cell membranes, it is like fat but only has two fatty acids and a phosphate group |
| steroids | carbon skeletons with four fused rings; distinguished by chemical groups attached to rings |
| cholesterol | component steroid to animal cell membranes and foundation to hormone steroids testosterone and estrogen |
| catalysts | chemical agents speeding up chemical reactions while not being consumed by them |
| polypeptide | a polymer of amino acids |
| protein | functional molecule of one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into a 3D structure |
| amino acid | organic molecule with amino acid and carboxyl groups |
| globular proteins | roughly spherical |
| fibrous proteins | like long fibers |
| primary structure | protein's sequence of amino acids |
| secondary structure | coils/folds in segments of polypeptide chains made by hydrogen bonds in the polypeptide backbone (oxygen is partial negative and hydrogen is partial positive) |
| helix | secondary structure; coil held by hydrogen bonding every fourth amino acid |
| pleated sheet | secondary structure; two or more segmented structures of polypeptide parallel and attached by hydrogen bonds |
| tertiary structure | overall shape of a polypeptide due to interactions between side chains (R groups) |
| hydrophobic interaction | interaction contributing to tertiary structure; nonpolar side chains get clustered to core of protein away from water and are held together by Van der Waals interactions while hydrogen and ionic bonds stabilize the structure |
| disulfide bridges | covalent bonds formed when two cysteine monomers with sulfhydryl groups are brought together through folding |
| quaternary structure | overall protein structure made of several polypeptide chains |
| sickle-cell disease | a blood disorder resulting from the use of amino acid valine instead of glutamic acid in hemoglobin |
| denaturation | when a protein unravels and loses shape due to factors in its environment (can't function) |
| X-ray crystallography | builds 3D models of atoms in protein molecules to determine ultimate 3D shape (uses diffraction of X-ray through molecule) |
| gene | a unit of inheritance that tells amino acids what sequence to go into, made of DNA |
| nucleic acids | polymers made of monomers called nucleotides |
| gene expression | DNA directing RNA synthesis and thus controlling protein synthesis |
| polynucleotides | nucleic acid which is a polymer which is a macromolecule |
| nucleotide | nitrogenous base, five-carbon sugar, and 1-3 phosphate groups |
| pyramidine | one six-membered ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms (cytosine, thymine, uracil) |
| purine | larger, a six-membered ring fused to a five-membered ring (adenine and guanine) |
| deoxyribose | lacks oxygen atom on second carbon; sugar attaching to the nitrogenous base in DNA |
| ribose | sugar attaching to the nitrogenous base in RNA |
| double helix | two polynucleotides form this shape of DNA; held together by hydrogen bonds |
| antiparallel | the polynucleotides in DNA running in opposite 5'-3' direction from one another |
| genomics | analyzing large sets of genes or the genomes of different species |
| proteomics | analysis of large sets of proteins and their sequences |
Created by:
cramdel37
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