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Bio 181 NCSU exam 1
Bio 181 NCSU Dr. Engell- Scientific Inquiry and methods, Evolution: Background a
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| biology | the study of life |
| prokaryotes | one way transfer of DNA from donor to recipient |
| water | all living things require water inside or surrounding cells; helps maintain stale body temperatures; transports materials |
| Any living organism must have all the characteristics of life to be living | hierarchy of organization, cells, reproduction, ability to take/use/transform energy, interact with their environment/respond to stimuli, growth and development, adaption and evolution, movement, water |
| observation | a statement describing a fact; use one or more 5 senses; describe something as it appears |
| inference | a statement based on interpretations of the facts; makes an explanation for the observation; cannot be directly observed; requires thought based on observations |
| During experiments record... | observations NOT inferences |
| What is science? | a powerful approach to understanding the world |
| induction and deduction | two basic types of reasoning involved in scientific problem solving |
| induction | take in lots of pieces of data(observations, previous research) then formulate a generalization which reasonably explains all of them; specific to general= the formation of a hypothesis |
| Hierarchy of Organization | atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems, biosphere |
| reproduction | life is continued through heritable information(DNA, RNA); life comes from life(no spontaneous generation) |
| eukaryotes | DNA from two individuals combines to make third individual |
| metabolism | chemical reactions involved in converting energy from the environment and using it in processes essential to growth, repair, and reconstruction; use ATP as source of all immediate energy |
| evolution | core theme of bio unifying life; variation of individual leads to natural selection which leads to evolution; adaptations may be structural, physiological, and/or behavioral |
| movement | basic property of cells Ex: muscle systems, cytoplasm within cells |
| deduction | begins with a generalization, make predictions based on the generalization, then challenge the generalization to a specific testing/experimenting part of science; first part of the scientific method is inductive, the rest is deductive |
| biology is logic based | limited to what can be tested(= not subjective questions); experiment may be observational in nature; they may be discovery based; may be strictly controlled in order to reduce error |
| discovery science | collect and analyze data, describe observations, not hypothesis driven |
| scientific method | series of steps used to answer questions logically; results should be repeatable |
| 5 major steps of the scientific method | make observations, formulate hypothesis, design/perform controlled experiment, analyze results, draw conclusions/present results |
| hypotheses | 3 formats: question, conditional statement, if... then statements; predictions come from hypothesis and are wrote in if... then statements |
| hypothesis must be... | testable, falsifiable: you can prove it is not correct, risky(make predictions that could contradict it); real strength of a hypothesis is not evidence in favor of it, but situations which could falsify it, not doing so! |
| controlled experiment | has both control and variable |
| control | used as baseline measure, identical to variable group except does NOT receive treatment in question |
| variable | what is altered, measured, or manipulated in an experiment |
| independent variable | manipulated, experiment has control over; only one independent variable per experiment |
| dependent variable | passively observed, measured; "depends" on independent variable; can be more than one dependent variable |
| correlation | two variables that vary together predictably; correlation does not equal causation |
| controlled variable | anything that could influence the dependent variable; can be many controlled variables in an experiment; must be the same for each subject in experiments |
| theory | requires much support; hypothesis must be supported repeatedly; theories are "knowledge": established explanations, extremely likely to be true; theory and fact are NOT the same |
| pseudoscience | not falsifiable or cannot be tested |
| junk science | faulty, insufficient, unreliable, or biased data (evidence ignored or unconfirmed to further an agenda) |
| Linneaus | classification system; highlighted similarities and differences among organisms |
| Buffon | quietly suggested that species change over generations, and that New World animals had "degenerated" from Old World forms |
| Lamarck | inheritance of acquired characteristics; traits passed on through use or disuse |
| Malthus | populations grow until they reach limits on size |
| Theory of natural selection(Darwin and Wallace 1858) | variation and over-reproduction; limited resources=competition, most "favorable" traits passed down(heritability) |
| creationism/creation science | rejects the theory of evolution and the idea that one species can over time become another species |
| intelligent design | rejects that natural law and chance alone can explain the diversity of life on Earth, arguing instead that it is the result of a purposeful scheme of some higher power |
| evolutionism | accepts Darwinian argument that natural selection and environmental factors combine to explain diversity of life on Earth, may or may not believe that evolution is way in which a Divine Being has chosen to work in the world; descent over time |
| Charles Darwin (1809-1882) | traveled HMS Beagle 1831-1836: Galapagos Islands South America; read Lyell's book proposed that Earth was much older than thought; spent 20 years researching evidence and experimenting(artificial selection; Origins of species published 1859(1000 sold) |
| environmental/natural selection | individuals with faulty characteristics don't survive long enough to reproduce |
| sexual selection | individuals with characteristics that are unattractive to other members of their group; don't mate or reproduce |
| Natural selection is a process... | not goal-directed |
| Examples of how evolution is a strongly supported theory | fossil record, vestigial structures, breeding/artificial selection, and comparative anatomy, biochemical evidence, embryology, distribution of species |
| hominin | direct human ancestors |
| vestigial structures | once necessary, but no longer are; not used for original purpose |
| pseudo genes | not used/turned on; inherited from ancestors but do not need |
| atavism | have an old trait expressed "accidentally" |
| homologous characteristics | similar traits inherited from same ancestor; a result of divergent evolution |
| analogous characteristics | similar traits evolved through same functions; a result of convergent evolution |
| no special "human genes"... | just different regulation of same genes |
| evolution is a two step process | the origin of variation by mutation or recombination, followed by changes in the frequencies of alleles and genotypes, caused chiefly by genetic drift or natural selection |
| natural selection works on individuals... | yet populations evolve |
| population | same species, same place, same time |
| microevolution | changes in a population's gene pool from one generation to the next |
| gene pool | all the genes in the entire population |
| genetic equilibrium | no change occurs in gene frequency |
| two factors which cause microevolution | mutation/new genetic variation, evolutionary mechanisms/alteration of existing genetic variation |
| mutations are only inherited in... | sex cells/gametes |
| epigenetics | can turn a gene on or off but NOT a mutation |
| evolutionary mechanisms | alteration of existing variation; genetic drift(two types), gene flow, natural selection, and nonrandom mating |
| genetic drift | allele frequencies in small population change by random chance events; change in allele frequencies is NOT related to the allele's influence on reproductive success(random) |
| two types of genetic drift | founder effect and bottleneck effect |
| founder effect | new habitat, a few individuals establish a new population |
| bottleneck effect | drastic population reduction(survivors don't reflect original genetic frequencies) |
| gene flow | migration of fertile individuals or transfer of gametes from one population to another |
| natural selection | differential reproduction of individuals with different traits in response to environment; must be heritable variation, differential reproductive success |
| 3 modes of natural selection | stabilizing, disruptive, and directional |
| stabilizing natural selection | the "average" trait is selected |
| disruptive natural selection | opposites, extremes are selected |
| directional natural selection | favors one extreme |
| balancing selection... | maintains diversity in a population, doesn't favor one form of a gene over another; can result in balanced polymorphism; often heterozygous condition is favored= heterozygote advantage |
| balanced polymorphism | opposite forms of a gene exist equally in a population |
| sexual selection | leads to sexual dimorphism; certain traits make an individual more attractive to the opposite sex, and thus more likely to reproduce; first recognized by Darwin; typically female choosing "best" male |
| Bateman-Trivers theory | sexual selection acts on males more strongly than on females "eggs are expensive, but sperm are cheap" |
| fundamental asymmetry of sex | females are limited by resources to produce eggs; males are limited by number of females they can mate with; males display their genetic quality to females; results in sexual dimorphism |
| intrasexual | individuals of one sex compete; precopulatory, postcopulatory, and post-zygotic |
| precopulatory | dominance, territories, etc |
| postcopulatory | sperm competition |
| post-zygotic | induced abortion or infanticide |
| intersexual/mate choice | for resources, protection, or aid to offspring; for genetic quality of offspring; result in sexual dimorphism |
| intrasexual selection | often results in increased aggressiveness and development of male secondary sex characteristics; secondary characteristics greatest in promiscuous species, least in monogamous species |
| intersexual selection | mate choice, generally female choice, male advertises qualities, female chooses best male ex: bower bird |
| sexual selection can lead to traits that are a handicap to the individual... | increase their chances at mating, but decrease their ability to survive |
| speciation bridges... | microevolution and macroevolution |
| macroevolution | level of change in organisms that is evident in the fossil record(requires long periods of time)=changes above the species level; evolutionary changes that create new species and groups of species; occurs by acclimation of microevolutionary changes |
| species | a group of organisms that maintain a distinctive set of attributes in nature, can produce fertile offspring |
| species concepts: phylogenetic | species are identified by having a unique combination of traits; historically used physical traits, now can use DNA sequences |
| species concepts: biological | have potential to interbreed, fertile offspring but cannot successfully interbreed with other species |
| biological species concept cannot... | identify whether geographically isolated populations belong to same species, classify species in extinct populations, account for asexually reproducing organisms, clearly define species when barriers to reproduction are incomplete |
| species concepts: evolutionary | species derived from a single lineage that is distinct from other lineages and has its own evolutionary tendencies and historical fate; more theoretical, can be applied to formation of all species |
| species concepts: ecological | each species occupies an ecological niche; if two organisms are very similar, their needs will overlap, which results in competition |
| reproductive isolating mechanisms | process which keeps two groups separate; prevents gene flow/interbreeding and thus the development of a single species; prezygotic and postzygotic |
| prezygotic isolating mechanisms | temporal isolation, behavioral isolation, mechanical isolation, gametic isolation, ecological/habitat isolation |
| postzygotic isolating mechanisms | zygotic mortality/inviability, hybrid sterility, hybrid breakdown(weak, low fitness, high mortality rate among offspring and future generations) |
| mechanisms of speciation | underlying cause of speciation is the accumulation of genetic changes that ultimately promote enough differences so that we judge a population to constitute a unique species |
| patterns of speciation | how microevolution(changes within species) results in macroevolution(changes in types of species) |
| patterns of speciation: anagenesis | small, progressive changes in a single species over long periods= sequence of species, no increase number of species(not as common) |
| patterns of speciation: cladogenesis | cluster of species all derived from single common ancestor(most common) |
| 3 modes of speciation based on geography | allopatric, parapatric, sympatric |
| allopatric speciation(different homelands) | geographical isolation results in new species; gene flow between populations slows or stops, most common way cladogenesis occurs ex: highways geographic separation often leads to adaptive radiation |
| adaptive radiation | one group spreads out into new areas, undergoes new adaptations |
| parapatric speciation(close to) | reproductive iso evolves in neighboring populations that share small zones of contact + exhibit modest gene exchange (ring species); genetic divergence arises largely through natural selection; mating differences due to different ecological conditions |
| sympatric speciation | new species evolves in same area as parental species; change in chromosome #; often abrupt genetic changes leads to reproductive iso of group; change in ecology ex: Hawthorn flies |
| gradualism | slow steady process of speciation |
| punctuated equilibrium | big bursts of speciation |
| bacteria and antibiotic resistance | due to increased use of antibiotics; underuse of prescription allow those bacteria with limited resistance to survive and multiply; overuse of antibiotics kills all susceptible bacteria, leaving only resistant bacteria to multiply and "dominate" |
| viruses evolve quickly | higher mutation rate than humans and reproduce very quickly |
| extinction | inability to change/adapt=disappearance of species; 5 major mass extinctions and may be entering 6th mass extinction now |
| contributing greatly to extinctions in the current era... | humans |
| extinction often accelerates evolution for remaining species... | allows a new species or group to become dominant ex: mammals following the extinction of dinosaurs |
Created by:
Leah.mazur
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