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BIOL-1409 Exam 1
BIOL 1409 with Professor Cash Fall 2022; Ch. 12.4, 12.7, 14-17
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What does each part of the Hardy-Weinberg equation represent? p^2+2pq+q^2=1 | p^2 refers to dominant homozygous, 2pq refers to heterozygous, and q^2 refers to recessive homozygous. =1 refers to how all frequencies added up will equal how many are in the total 1 population. |
| Understand the consequences for violating each condition of the Hardy-Weinberg equation. 1. No mutations 2. Large population 3. Random mating 4. No migration in or out 5. No natural selection | 1. New alleles generated (alleles change) 2. Genetic drift, a sampling error 3. Assortative mating 4. Gene flow (alleles removed/added) 5. Environment changes-- and is the most frequently occurring consequence |
| What are the morphological and biological definitions of species? | Shape and physical features classify a species; a population whose members can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. |
| What are prezygotic barriers to evolution, when do they act, and what do they prevent? | Habitat isolation; temporal (time) isolation; behavioral isolation; mechanical isolation; gametic isolation |
| What are postzygotic barriers to evolution, when do they act, and what do they prevent? | Hybrid inviability; hybrid infertility; hybrid breakdown |
| Describe the requirements and commonness of allopatric speciation. | No contact between populations because of a geographical barrier. Very common. |
| Describe the requirements of parapatric speciation. What type of selection does parapatric speciation entail? | Populations sharing a border area because of adjacent environments. Natural selection occurs and causes gene flow (removing or adding alleles). |
| Describe sympatric speciation. Why is it controversial, and what is the significance of animals being polyploidy? | Continuous contact btwn populations b/c of no geo. barrier. Botanists&zoologists disagree on if this is possible b/c it req. self-fertilization that creates defect in meiosis, causes chromosomes to x2. Animals can't hold that many chromosomes, plants can. |
| In speciation, describe gradualism. | Microevolutionary changes accumulate slowly, intermediate phenotypes present |
| In speciation, define adaptive radiation and its requirements. | A single species gives rise to multiple specialized forms in a relatively short time; rapid bursts of speciation. Requires a newly empty niche (habitat) that's parapatric with another population. |
| Describe the factors that predict extinction. | 1. Large bodies that are slow to mature (ex. elephants) 2. Large-scale environmental change 3. Small populations of few breeding individuals (ex. cheetahs) |
| Define mass extinction and it's 3 major causes. | "Sudden" disappearance of at least half of a population; lots of species dying around the same time. 1. Meteorite/comet impact 2. Plate tectonics 3. Human activity |
| What is the order of the taxonomic hierarchy, and what characteristics are the classifications based on? | Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species Do Kinky People Come Over For Group Sex? Based on what can be *seen* with the naked eye. |
| Define clade in terms of cladistics. | Organisms that have certain adaptations, and so all their offspring have that certain adaptation as well. |
| What are phylogenetic trees, and what characteristics are they based on? | A diagram showing the evolutionary relationships among various biological species; based on adaptation differences. 1. Ancestral characteristics-- characteristics that the original ancestor has (ex. hair, tailbone) 2. Derived characteristics-- Genetic |
| Describe conditions on ancient Earth ~4 billion years ago: the atmosphere | "Reducing;" no oxygen |
| Describe conditions on ancient Earth ~4 billion years ago: why did organic molecules persist? | There was no life present to break them down. |
| Describe conditions on ancient Earth ~4 billion years ago: what did Miller's experiment find? | It created organic molecules out of inorganic molecules. |
| Describe conditions on ancient Earth ~4 billion years ago: what is the significance of hydrothermal vents? | They allowed synthesis of organic molecules from inorganic molecules, and are an example in actual ancient Earth in contrast to Miller's experiment that was done in modern day Earth. |
| Describe conditions on ancient Earth ~4 billion years ago: what was the role of clays and it's first significant outcome? | They provided a template for chemical reactions; reserve transcriptase. |
| Describe the first forms of life: protogenotes/protocells/protobionts & liposomes | Came from an environmental "soup" that created the first organic molecules. These organic molecules eventually interacted and were enclosed in a phospholipid bilayer, creating protocells. |
| [SHORT ANSWER QUESTION] Why is there no fossil evidence of the first forms of life (protogenotes/protocells/protobionts & liposomes)? | There are no rocks on Earth that are old enough, b/c erosion and geological cycles have completely broken them down. They also didn't have fossilizable features such as bones, and scientists cannot recreate pre-photosyn. conditions like back then. |
| How did ancient photosynthesizers change the atmosphere? | Changed it from reducing to oxygenated. |
| Describe the endosymbiotic origin (ancestry) of chloroplasts and mitochondria, and the evidence that proves it. | These two were originally free-living bacteria that began living inside other cells, which can be proven by similarities in shape, size, and membrane structure between them and other bacteria. |
| Define multicellularity. | A bunch of cells that are specialized |
| How long was the Precambrian supereon, and what were the dominant forms of life during that time? | From the Big Bang until when photosynthesizers first arose-- 4 billion years. All water organisms due to no oxygen in the atmosphere. |
| How long was the Paleozoic era, and what were the dominant forms of life during that time? | The development of underwater animals and land plants-- about 300 million years; ferns and fish. |
| How long was the Mesozoic era, and what were the dominant forms of life during that time? | About 200 million years where dry-land animals developed; gymnosperms and reptiles that don't need water to reproduce. |
| How long was the Cenozoic era, and what were the dominant forms of life during that time? | From the Mesozoic era to present day-- co-evolution of plants and animals, plants begun needing animals to reproduce; mammals. |
| What is the name of the eon that encompasses the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras? | Phanerozoic eon |
| What characteristics make a primate a primate? | Opposable thumbs, nails instead of claws, a large brain, and complex language. |
| What does bipedalism allow/what is the significance of bipedalism in humans? | Skull and spinal cord alignment-- foramen magnum moved from back of skull to bottom of skulls and allows humans to carry things. |
| Describe the course of hominin (human) evolution. | 1. Ardipithecus: omnivore capable of bipedalism 2. Australopithecus: "Lucy," footprint evidence of bipedalism 3. Paranthropus: evolutionary dead end 4. Homo: modern humans. We are so smart that we drove all other "homo" species extinct. |
| What effect did open plains replacing tropical forests have on bipedalism? | Hunting/survival advantage-- being able to see from a higher vantage point being bipedal was very advantageous in hunting and surviving. |
| What is latitude's effect on human skin pigmentation? | Vitamin D absorption |
| Define pathogenicity. | Causes disease |
| Define reservoir in relation to viruses. | Organisms that can house viruses without being sick. |
| Why are viruses not included in the taxonomy of organisms? | Viruses are not alive. |
| Describe the composition of a virus. | 1. Genetic material: DNA or RNA 2. Protein capsid that encapsulates the genetic material 3. POSSIBLE, not always present, envelope: a phospholipid bilayer around the protein. |
| What are the stages of the replication process of a virus? | Attachment, penetration, synthesis, assembly, and release. |
| How do viruses attach? | By adhering to a receptor molecule on a cell's surface. |
| What are the mechanisms for viruses to penetrate in replication? | 1. Endocytosis: animal cells engulf virus particles and bring them into the cytoplasm. 2. Being carried in the mouth of herbivorous insects 3. Injection through a hole in the cell wall |
| Which partner provides which components of synthesis in virus replication? | A viral partner provides DNA and a host cell provides ribosomes. |
| What happens first in assembly during virus replication? | The protein capsid is formed. |
| What are the mechanisms and consequences of release in virus replication? | 1. Dissolve the cell wall-- the cell will not survive. 2. Exocytosis-- the cell may survive |
| What is a lytic infection and its implications as "phage therapy?" | The virus replication causes the cell to burst, which releases a flood of new viruses. This infection can be used as phage therapy because the viruses kill until all host cells are dead, and the treatment is precisely tailored to the infection. |
| What is a lysogenic infection and its effect on the host cell? | Where the genetic material replicates along with the bacteria's genetic material which allows the bacteria to stay alive. Eventually this infection turns lytic though, and kills the cell. |
| What is a latent infection, and how is it different from lytic and lysogenic infections? | Viral genetic information inside an animal cell lies dormant even as the cell divides, but the virus may be reactivated later. Similar to a lysogenic infection in a bacterial cell, but very different from a lytic infection since it does not kill the cell. |
| Why can't virus infections be cured, only avoided? | To cure means to totally get rid of the origin of infection, but viruses are not alive and therefore cannot be killed. |
| What effect do viral infections have on plants, and how do plants transmit the virus? | The yield of the plant is reduced, and the virus is transmitted via plant-eating insects like grasshoppers who carry the virus in their mouth from plant to plant. |
| Describe a viroid: its composition, typical hosts, and how it's transmitted. | Circular RNA; hosted by plants. Transmitted through mechanical means such as pollen. |
| Describe a prion: its composition, typical hosts, and how it's transmitted. | Infection protein; hosted by animals. Transmitted via ingesting something infected by it. |
| What are the defining characteristics of prokaryotes, where are they found, and how prevalent are they? | Uncompartmentalized cytoplasm, small and simple, and unicellular; found EVERYWHERE, and even more prevalent than eukaryotes. |
| What are the typical internal structures in a prokaryote? | Nucleoid, possibly plasmids (accessory DNA), ribosomes, cytoplasm, and plasma membrane. |
| Describe the shape of coccus, bacillus, and spirillum bacteria. | Coccus: ball shape Bacillus: rod shape Spirillum: curly shape |
| What is the composition and implications of a bacterial cell wall? | Peptidoglycan (sugar + protein); penicillin in penicillin-susceptible bacteria can interrupt peptidoglycan's formation. |
| Describe the composition and functions of the glycocalyx. | Composed of carbohydrates; it sticks bacteria onto where it's living to prevent the bacteria from drying out. |
| What do the characteristics of Gram stains indicate in bacteria? | Purple color is positive, thus the bacteria is susceptible to penicillin. Red color is negative, meaning the bacteria is NOT susceptible to penicillin. |
| Describe the composition and function of pili. | Short, hair-like projections of protein that adhere the cell to objects (attachment pili) or transfer DNA from cell to cell (sex pili). |
| Describe the function of the prokaryotic flagellum. | Anchored into the cell wall, spins in a spiral to move the prokaryote around. |
| Why are prokaryotic flagella not homologous to eukaryotic flagella? | While prokaryotic flagella are anchored in the cell wall and move in a spiral pattern, eukaryotic flagella are anchored in the cytoplasm and move in a whip-like movement. |
| Describe the function of endospores and diseases they can cause. | They allow bacteria to avoid dying in extreme conditions like dehydration and heat, and are extremely difficult to destroy. Some examples of these are tetanus and anthrax. |
| How do chemotrophs get energy? | Oxidization and reduction reactions |
| What are the differences between obligate aerobes, obligate anaerobes, and facultative anaerobes? | Need oxygen to survive, doesn't need oxygen to survive, and can survive with or without oxygen |
| What are the mechanisms of vertical DNA transmission, and how does diversity occur vertically? | Cloning; mutations |
| What is the relationship between cells in horizontal transmission, and what are its implications for antibiotic resistance? | A cell receives DNA from another cell that is not its ancestor. Transduction and conjugation move antibiotic-resistant genes among other bacteria which is a serious public health problem. |
| What are 3 ways DNA can be transmitted horizontally? | Transformation, transduction, and conjugation. |
| Where is DNA acquired in transformation (in horizontal DNA transmission)? | From the environment |
| How is DNA acquired in transduction (in horizontal DNA transmission)? | New DNA is inserted by a bacteriophage virus |
| Which structure allows DNA to be acquired in conjugation (in horizontal DNA transmission)? | A sex pilus of another bacteria |
| Describe what makes bacteria distinct from archaea. | Cell wall is made of peptidoglycan; their DNA, RNA, protein synthesis machinery; they're mostly mesophiles; their reproductive methods |
| Describe what makes archaea distinct from bacteria. | Cell wall is made of just protein; does not respond to antibiotics; their DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis machinery; they're mostly extremophiles; their reproductive methods |
| How do bacteria and archaea relate to humans? | 1. Serve as decomposers in ecosystems 2. Nitrogen fixation, and their impact on nitrogen cycle: 3. Root nodule bacteria: 4. Nonpathogenic and pathogenic residents: 5. Industrial uses: |
| When does speciation occur? | When some members of a population can no longer successfully interbreed with the rest of the population. |
| What do bacteria and archaea have in common? | They are single-celled prokaryotes; have ribosomes, cell wall, and sometimes flagella; common ancestor; size/shape; they're mesophiles |
| What is punctuated equilibrium in terms of speciation, and how quick is it? | Where there are no intermediate pheno/genotypes, species change from 1 to 2 to 3 very abruptly |
Created by:
knrandles
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