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Biology AP
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| biology | the study of life |
| atoms | basic units of matter, the smallest part of an element that displays the properties of the element |
| molecule | combination of two or more of the same type of atom bond together |
| cell | the most basic unit of life |
| biomolecules | the molecules that make up living things |
| matter | anything that takes up space and has mass |
| elements | a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical means |
| atomic symbol | one or two letters that stands for the name of the element |
| protons | positively charged subatomic particles |
| neutrons | neutral charged subatomic particles |
| electrons | negatively charged subatomic particles |
| electron shells | the average location of electrons in an atom model |
| John Dalton | the English scientist who developed the atomic theory |
| atomic theory | theory that elements consist of tiny particles called atoms |
| atomic number | the number of protons/electrons in the nucleus |
| isotopes | atoms of the same element that differ in the number of neutrons |
| atomic mass | the average mass for all the isotopes of the atom |
| Dmitri Mendeleev | the Russian chemist who developed the periodic table |
| valence shell | the outermost electron shell |
| octet rule | in atoms with more than one shell, the valence shell is most stable when it has eight electrons |
| compound | molecule containing atoms of at least two different elements |
| molecular formula | tells you the number of each kind of atom in a molecule |
| ionic bond | compounds held together by am attraction between negatively and positively charged ions |
| ions | charged particles after electron transfer causing charge imbalance |
| covalent bonds | when two atoms share electrons in such a way that each atom has an octet of electrons in the outer shell |
| nonpolar covalent bond | when the sharing of electrons between two atoms is equal |
| electronegativity | an atom with greater attraction for a shared pair of electrons |
| polar covalent bond | when electrons are not shared equally between two atoms |
| hydrogen bonds | the attraction of a slightly positive hydrogen to a slightly negative atom in the vicinity |
| calorie | the amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of water 1* C |
| heat capacity | the amount of heat calories a substance can take before it changes temperature |
| solvent | a substance that dissolves a great number of substances |
| solution | contains dissolved substances, solvent and solute together |
| solute | dissolved substance |
| cohesion | the ability of water molecules to cling to each other due to hydrogen bonds |
| adhesion | the ability of water molecules to cling to other polar surfaces due to waters polarity |
| acids | substances that dissociate in water, releasing hydrogen ions (h+) ANYTHING THAT DONATES A PROTON |
| bases | substances that either take up hydrogen ions (H+) or release hydroxide ions (OH-)\ ANYTHING THAT TAKES A PROTON |
| pH scale | used to indicate the acidity or basicity (alkalinity) of a solution, less than 7 is acidic, more than 7 is basic |
| H+ | hydrogen ion |
| OH- | hydroxide ion |
| buffer | chemical or combination of chemicals that keeps pH within normal limits |
| cation | positively charged ion |
| anions | negatively charged ion |
| organic chemistry | the chemistry of living organisms |
| inorganic chemistry | the chemistry of nonliving matter |
| functional group | a specific combination of bonded atoms that always reacts in the same way, regardless of the carbon skeleton to which it is attached |
| isomers | organic molecules that have identical molecular formulas but different arrangements of atoms |
| monomer | one subunit used to build larger molecules |
| polymer | huge molecules built by joining monomers |
| dehydration reaction | joining molecules together by removing a water molecule |
| hydrolysis reaction | breaking apart a molecule by inserting a water molecule |
| carbohydrates | an immediate energy source in living organisms |
| monosaccharides | a single sugar molecule (simple sugars) |
| pentoses | monosaccharides with five carbons |
| hexoses | monosaccharides with six carbons |
| glucose | kind of hexose, major source of cellular fuel for all living organisms, C*6, H*12, O*6 |
| ribose and deoxyribose | pentose sugars that make up the structural backbone in RNA and DNA |
| disaccharide | two monosaccharides that have joined during dehydration reaction |
| polysaccharides | long polymers of monosaccharides, huge groups of sugars |
| starch | stores a large amount of glucose |
| cellulose | FIBER, structural plant polysaccharide, most abundant carbohydrate/organic molecule on Earth |
| chitin | structural animal and fungi polysaccharide, fungal cell walls and exoskeletons of crabs/similar animals |
| peptidoglycan | structural bacteria polysaccharide |
| lipid | organic compound insoluble in water due to hydrogen chains |
| fats | triglycerides primarily used for insulation and long term energy storage in animals |
| oils | triglycerides in plants |
| triglycerides | fats composed of fatty acids and glycerol subunits, one complete fat molecule with 3 fatty acid chains |
| fatty acid | long hydrocarbon chain with an even number of carbons and a carboxyl group at one end |
| saturated fatty acid | fatty acid with no double bonds and increased hydrogens, usually solid, comes from animals |
| unsaturated fatty acid | fatty acid with double bonds and decreased bonded hydrogens, usually liquid, comes from plants or fish |
| trans fat | a triglyceride with at least one bond in a trans configuration |
| glycerol | 3-carbon compound with three -OH (hydroxyl) groups, polar, soluble in water |
| glycogen | excess sugar stored as this molecule in the liver and muscle cells |
| phospholipids | lipids made with 2 fatty acid chains and a phosphate linked to glycerol, hydrophobic tail and hydrophilic head, arrange so polar heads are oriented towards water |
| steroids | lipids containing four fused carbon rings (cholesterol and hormones) |
| waxes | long fatty acid chains connected to carbon chains containing alcohol functional groups, solid with high melting point, hydrophobic |
| protein | organic compound used for structural support, transport, defense, movement, defense, metabolism, regulation. POLYMER CONSTRUCTED FROM AMINO ACIDS, polypeptide folded into particular shape with function |
| amino acid | an organic compound with an amino group (NH*3)and a carboxyl group (COOH) and a variable group |
| peptide bond | covalent bond between two amino acids between the carboxyl of one acid and the amino group of the other |
| peptide | two or more amino acids bonded together |
| polypeptide | a chain of many amino acids joined by peptide bonds |
| primary protein structure | linear sequence of amino acids |
| secondary protein structure | polypeptide coils or folds in a particular way, coiling into alpha helix, folded into beta sheet, HYDROGEN BONDS |
| tertiary protein structure | the folding that results in the final three dimensional shape of a polypeptide |
| denatured | when a protein loses its natural shape |
| quaternary structure | some proteins consist of more than one polypeptide |
| chaperone proteins | proteins that help new proteins fold into their normal shape, correcting misfolding |
| prions | misfolded proteins |
| nucleic acids | organic compounds composed of nucleotides, store information and conduct chemical reactions |
| deoxyribonucleic acid | DNA, type of nucleic acid, stores information about how to replicate itself and the order in which amino acids are the be joined to make a protein |
| ribonucleic acid | RNA, type of nucleic acid, temporary copy of a gene in DNA, synthesizing proteins, enzyme for peptide bonds |
| coenzymes | nonprotein organic molecules that help regulate enzymatic reactions, VITAMINS |
| adenosine triphosphate | ATP, nucleotide that stores large amounts of energy needed for cellular reactions and for various other energy requiring processes in the cell |
| nucleotide | comprised of a pentose sugar, a phosphate and a nitrogen base |
| pyrimidines | nucleotides that have a base with a single ring |
| purines | nucleotides with a double ringed base |
| complementary base pairing | adenine and thymine are always together and guanine and cytosine are always paired, (A+G=T+C) |
| adenosine diphosphate | ADP, hydrolysis of the terminal phosphate bond makes this phosphate molecule |
| exergonic reaction | reaction that gives off energy |
| endergonic reaction | reaction that takes energy to proceed |
| oxidation reaction | reaction where a substance loses electrons |
| amylose starch | polysaccharide that is NOT branched or coiled |
| enzymes | catalytic proteins, they cause reactions to proceed faster, reduces the amount of energy required |
| substrate | something that goes into a chemical reaction, the substance on which the enzyme acts |
| inhibitors | slow enzymes by controlling their active site |
| competitive inhibition | inhibitors, they resemble the substrate and compete for the active site |
| noncompetitive inhibition | inhibitors, reacts by changing the shape of active site |
| cofactors | inorganic metals that help enzymes, MINERALS |
| active site | the catalytic or reactive center on an enzyme |
| allosteric noncompetitive inhibition | inhibitors, binds to the enzyme at another site but still changes the site |
| cell theory | theory that states that all organisms are made of cells, cells are the basic units of structure and function in organisms, cells com only from preexisting cells because cells are self reproducing |
| surface area to volume ratio | in cells having a higher ratio of surface area to volume increases efficiency in transporting materials into and out of the cell |
| compound light microscope | a kind of microscope that uses a set of glass lenses to focus light rays passing through specimen to produce an image |
| TEM | transmission electron microscope, uses a set of electromagnetic lenses to focus electrons passing through a specimen to produce an image, TRANSMITS the electrons |
| SEM | scanning electron microscope, microscope using a narrow beam of electrons to scan over the surface of a specimen that is coated with a thin metal layer |
| prokaryotic cells | cells that lack a membrane bound nucleus |
| eukaryotic cells | cells that have a nucleus |
| bacillus | a rod shaped bacterium ( prokaryote) |
| coccus | a spherical shaped bacterium (prokaryote) |
| spirilla | rigid spiral bacterium |
| spirochetes | flexible spiral bacterium |
| cell envelope | exists in bacteria consisting of the plasma membrane, the cell wall and the glycocalyx |
| plasma membrane | phospholipid bilayer in cells with embedded proteins |
| mesosomes | increase the surface area for the attachment of enzymes carrying metabolic activities in prokaryotes |
| glycocalyx | a layer of polysaccharides that lies outside the cell wall in some bacteria |
| capsule | when the glycocalyx is well organized and not easily washed off |
| cytoplasm | a semifluid solution composed of water and inorganic and organic molecules encased by a plasma membrane |
| nucleoid | the region of the cytoplasm that DNA is located in a prokaryote |
| plasmid | extrachromosomal pieces of circular DNA in prokaryotes |
| ribosomes | tiny structures in the cytoplasm that synthesize proteins |
| cynobacteria | a form of bacteria that are capable of photosynthesis in the same manner as plants |
| thykaloids | internal membranes in cyanobacteria cytoplasm |
| flagella | appendages on prokaryotes for propulsion |
| fimbriae | small bristle like fibers sprouting from cell surface of prokaryotes |
| conjugation pili | rigid tubular structures used by prokaryotes to pass DNA from cell to cell |
| organelles | internal membrane bound compartments with attached proteins that help complete functions in the cell |
| endosymbiotic theory | theory that eukaryotic cells were formed when prokaryotes were taken up by larger cells and lived together cooperatively |
| cytoskeleton | maintains cell shape and assists movement of cell parts |
| microtubules | protein cylinders that move organelles |
| intermediate filaments | protein fibers that provide stability of shape in cells |
| actin filaments | protein fibers that play a role in cell division and shape |
| centrioles | short cylinders of microtubules |
| centrosome | microtubules organizing center that contains a pair of centrioles |
| vesicle | small membrane bound sac that stores and transports substances in the cell |
| lysosome | vesicle that digests macromolecules and even cell parts |
| nucleus | command center of the cell |
| nuclear enevelope | double membrane with nuclear pores that encloses the nucleus |
| chromatin | diffuse threads containing DNA and protein in the nucleus, coiled makes chromosomes, made of nucleic acid and protein |
| nucleolus | region inside the nucleus that produces subunits of ribosomes |
| endoplasmic reticulum (ER) | protein and lipid metabolism in the cell |
| rough ER | ER studded with ribosomes that synthesize proteins |
| smooth ER | lacks ribosomes, synthesizes lipid molecules |
| peroxisome | vesicle that is involved in fatty acid metabolism |
| polyribosomes | string of ribosomes simultaneously synthesizing same protein |
| mitochondria | organelle that carries out cellular respiration producing ATP molecules, powerhouse of the cell |
| golgi apparatus | process packages and secretes modified proteins |
| central vacuole | large fluid filled sac that stores metabolites and helps maintain turgor pressure in plant cells |
| nucleoplasm | semifluid matrix in the nucleus |
| chromosomes | coiled and condensed chromatin that carry genetic information |
| genes | information in chromosomes |
| autophagy | the process by which lysosomes destroy nonfunctional organelles and cytoplasm |
| endomembrane system | a series if membranous organelles that work together and communicate by means of transport vesicles |
| plastids | plant organelles that are surrounded bt a double membrane and have varied functions |
| fluid mosaic model | model used to describe the interactions of cell plasma membrane components |
| glycolipids | phospholipids that have attached carbohydrate sugar chains, creates unique cell fingerprint |
| glycoproteins | proteins that have attached carbohydrate sugar chains, creates unique cell fingerprint |
| channel proteins | proteins that pass molecules through cell membrane by forming a channel that they can flow through |
| carrier proteins | proteins that pass molecules through cell membrane by receiving the substance and changing its shape , moving it across the membrane |
| cell recognition proteins | glycoproteins that help cells recognize when it is being invaded by pathogens and start the immune response |
| receptor proteins | proteins that have a shape so only a specific molecule can bind to it, change the proteins shape as a signal to start other response |
| enzymatic proteins | proteins that carry out metabolic reactions directly and help perform chemical reactions |
| junction proteins | proteins that are involved in forming various types of junctions between animal cells |
| selectively permeable | the plasma membrane only allowing certain substances into the cell while keeping others out |
| concentration gradient | molecules moving from an area where their concentration is high to an area where their concentration is low, no energy movement for hydrophobic/nonpolar molecules |
| aquaporins | channel proteins that allow water to cross a membrane more quickly than expected for most polar molecules |
| bulk transport | a way that large particles can exit or enter a cell with vesicle formation |
| diffusion | movement of molecules from a higher to lower concentration until equilibrium is achieved and molecules are distributed equally |
| osmosis | the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane from high to low concentration |
| isotonic solution | solution where the solute concentration and the water concentration on both inside and outside the cell are equal |
| toncity | the strength of a solution |
| hypotonic solution | hypo means less than so the solution has a lower concentration of solute outside than inside the cell (higher water) and lower concentration of water inside the cell ( higher solute) |
| cytolysis | cells that have been disrupted because of hypotonicity, pressurized and burst because of water filling in the low water concentration inside the cell |
| hemolysis | cytolysis in red blood cells |
| turgor pressure | the swelling of a plant cell in a hypotonic solution, no cytolysis like in animal cells because of cell wall, keeps plant up |
| hypertonic solutions | hyper means more so solutions where the solute concentration is greater on the outside (less water) and there is more water on the inside so water leaves the cell |
| good salt concentration for isonicity in red blood cells | 0..9% |
| crenation | red blood cells in hypertonic solutions, shrinking/shriveling up |
| plasmolysis | a shrinking of the plant cell due to hypertonic osmosis |
| facilitated transport | movement of molecules through plasma membrane that takes no energy, fast and with the gradient |
| active transport | movement of molecules through plasma membrane that requires energy (ATP), slow and against the gradient |
| sodium potassium pump | a kind of carrier protein pump that moves sodium ions to the outside of the cell and moves potassium ions to the inside, takes in sodium changes shape to move and is now compatible w potassium so takes it in changes shape and moves again |
| exocytosis | vesicles taking macromolecules out of the cell |
| endocytosis | vesicles taking macromolecules into the cell |
| phagocytosis | when the material in endocytosis is large, cell "eating" |
| pinocytosis | when the material in endocytosis is small, cell "drinking" |
| receptor mediated endocytosis | a specific form of pinocytosis that uses a receptor protein to recognize compatible molecules and take them into the cell |
| extracellular matrix (ECM) | a meshwork of proteins and polysaccharides in close association with the cell that produced them that is outside the cell for protection |
| adhesion junctions | kind of junction between cells that mechanically attach adjacent cells with cadherins flexible and sturdy |
| cadherins | the integral membrane proteins that make adhesion junctions |
| tight junctions | junction of cells that is even closer than adhesion, for barrier tissues ect |
| gap junction | junction of cells that allows them to communicate, two identical plasma membrane channels join, allows flow of ions |
| plasmodesmata | numerous narrow, membrane lined channels that pass through the cell wall and join plant cells |
| stoma | how carbon dioxide enters a leaf, small openings |
| heterotrophs | consumer organisms that have to take in their energy from somewhere else |
| autotrophs | producer photosynthetic organisms that produce their own food |
| stroma | semifluid interior of the chloroplasts, contains enzyme rich solution where carbon dioxide is attached to the organic compound and reduced to a carbohydrate |
| thylakoids | membrane system in chloroplasts, flattened sacks that stack together to form granas, helps with lots of surface area, contains pigments |
| grana | stacks of thylakoids, helps with lots of surface area |
| chlorophyll | important pigment in in photosynthesis |
| mesophyll | plant leaf tissue with specialized photosynthesis cells |
| NADP+ | a coenzyme (vitamin) that is important in photosynthesis |
| light reactions | photosynthesis reaction, occurs when sun is out, electrons move down an electron transport chain, occurs in the thylakoid membranes, solar energy absorbed then water is split releasing oxygen and ATP and NADPH are produced |
| NADPH | reduced NADP+ (has received electrons) |
| dark reactions/calvin cycle/light independent reaction | photosynthesis reaction that occurs in the stroma, carbon fixation, reduction of CO2 and regeneration of RuBp |
| absorption spectrum | which portions of visible light a pigment can absorb |
| cartenoids | pigments that make plants yellow red and orange in the fall |
| photosystem | a pigment complex (molecules of chlorophylls a and b and carotenoids) and electron acceptor molecules in thylakoids, important for solar energy gathering in light reactions |
| photosystem ll | the first photosystem in the ETC, light energy excites electrons so they travel and chlorophyll replaces them by splitting water into oxygen and hydrogen |
| photosystem l | the second photosystem in the ETC, collects hydrogens and adds them to NADP+ making NADPH which is sent to the calvin cycle |
| ETC | electron transport chain, moving the electrons down through the photosystems in photosynthesis |
| photophosphorylation | the ETC "charging" the thylakoids with protons from the splitting of water as they pass electrons along until they build up and leave the thylakoid through the ATP synthaze complex as ATP (gradient!!!) |
| CO2 fixation | the first stage of the calvin cycle, CO2 from atmosphere is attatched to RuBP making a 6 carbon molecule, splits into 2x 3carbon molecules |
| reduction of carbon dioxide | second stage of the calvin cycle, the 3PG molecules that were formed in step one are reduced with the electrons from the ATP and NADPH from the light reaction. Now chemically reduced it can do larger reactions and storage and its called G3P |
| regeneration of RuBP | third stage of the calvin cycle, we get 6 G3P by turning the cycle 3x and then one G3P goes off to be useful while the other 5 regenerate RuBP |
| RuBisCo | an enzyme that takes CO2 and turns inorganic carbon into organic carbon, SLOW so makes a TON, accidentally attaches RuBP to oxygen instead of CO2 and makes it toxic sometimes |
| C4 plants | plants that use a different location for photosynthesis because its too hot |
| CAM plants | plants that open up stoma at night because its too hot |
| glycolysis | first phase of cellular respiration, takes place in cytoplasm, glucose is broken down into two molecules, 6 carbon molecule-->2x 3carbon molecules (PYRUVATE), 2 ATP and 2 NADH are released |
| preparatory/intermediate reaction | the second phase of cellular respiration, takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria, pyruvate broken down into 2C acetyl group (CoA) and 1 CO2 is released, occurs 2x per glucose molecule |
| citric acid cycle/krebs cycle | third phase of cellular respiration, mitochondria matrix, CoA joins with 4C molecule to form 6C molecule (citric acid), more NADH, FADH and CO2 is released resulting in a 4C molecule, each turn makes 1 ATP |
| fermentation | occurs when cells dont have enough oxygen so they produce lactic acid which makes your muscles sore, anaerobic respiration not for ATP production b ut for NAD+ replenishing, bacteria and yeast=alcholic fermentation |
| cytochromes | a protein that has a tightly bound heme group with a central atom of iron, important to ETC respiration |
| respiration ETC | the fourth phase of cellular respiration, mitochondria cristae, hydrogen gradient (chemiosmosis) makes lots and lots of ATP from the NADH, FADH2 |
| catabolic reaction | reaction that takes things apart, (breaking down carbs, fats or proteins for energy) |
| anabolic reaction | reaction that builds things up (building up fats, carbs or proteins after you take in energy) |
| binary fission | asexual reproduction of bacteria |
| cell cycle | an ordered set of stages that takes place between the time eukaryotic cell divides and the time the resulting daughter-cells also divide |
| interphase | most of the cell cycle is spent in this phase, contains G1, S and G2 stages, preparations are made for mitosis |
| G1 stage | the first section of interphase, cell growth occurs |
| S stage | second section of interphase, chromosomes are doubled and become chromatids, DNA replication |
| G2 stage | third section of interphase, proteins are synthesized to assist in mitosis |
| mitosis | nuclear cell divison |
| cytokinesis | the splitting of the cytoplasm in mitosis |
| mitotic spindle | assists in the distribution of daughter chromosomes |
| cyclins | internal signaling proteins that function as checkpoints in the cell cycle, certain levels of them allow the cell to proceed to the next step in cell cycle |
| apoptosis | programmed cell death, prevents damaged cells from multiplying |
| capases | enzymes that bring about cell death |
| DNA conjugation | bacteria DNA transfer between 2 cells |
| DNA transduction | viruses bring bacteria DNA from one cell to the other |
| DNA transformation | bacteria get new DNA from their environment |
| histones | DNA is winded around these to make nucleosomes |
| nucleosomes | coil to make chromosomes, made of histone proteins and DNA |
| chromatid | one half of a doubled chromosome |
| sister chromatids | two attatched chromatids |
| centromere | waist, narrow region where chromatids are attached |
| kineteochores | docking sites on the centromeres |
| homologous chromosomes | matching chromosomes, one from each parent, both have the same genes |
| diploid | 2 sets of chromosomes, written as 2n, humans it is 46 |
| haploid | 1 set of chromosomes, written as n, in humans it is 23, found in sex cells |
| prophase | first phase of mitosis, chromosomes condense and become visible, microtubules form spindles, nucleus breaks up |
| metaphase | second phase of mitosis, microtubules bring chromosomes into alignment down the center of the cell |
| anaphase | third phase of mitosis, sister chromatids separate and are pulled towards opposite poles, poles move farther apart |
| telophase | fourth phase of mitosis, chromosomes uncoil and nucleus reforms, one on each side with 2n each |
| cell plate | in plant cell division it grows outward, formed from vesicles from the golgi body |
| cleavage furrow | indentation in cytokinesis of animal cells, formed by the cytoskeleton filaments shrinking |
| kinases | enzymes that stop the cell cycle or cause cell death if the DNA is broken or incomplete |
| G0 stage | permanent interphase, if cell doesnt recieve go ahead signal in G1 it will go here, ex :nerve cells |
| protoncogenes | mutated genes that promote mitosis (cancer cells) |
| benign tumors | tumors that remain at original site, grows slowly |
| malignant tumors | tumors that divide abnormally and dont remain in original tissue, travels in veins |
| metastasis | traveling of cancer cells to other areas of the body, malignant tumors |
| Interphase l | first phase of meiosis, each chromosome replicates as normal like in mitosis |
| Prophase l | phase of meiosis, homologous chromosomes pair up forming tetrads, crossing over of the chromosomes occurs and spindle forms |
| tetrads | pair of homologous chromosomes |
| Metaphase l | phase in meiosis, tetrads line up in the middle |
| Anaphase l | phase in meiosis, spindles shorten and pull apart duplicated chromosomes to poles |
| Telophase l | phase in meiosis, nucleus forms, two new cells are haploid with doubled chromosomes |
| prophase ll | phase of meiosis, spindle reforms, chromosome condenses and nuclear envelope breaks down |
| metaphase ll | phase of meiosis, chromosomes line up down the middle |
| anaphase ll | phase of meiosis, chromatids are pulled apart |
| telophase ll | phase of meiosis, nuclear envelope forms, cytokinesis occurs and there are now 4 haploid cells |
| spermatogenesis | diploid cell grows into spermatocyte that begins meiosis, resulting in 4 haploid cells develop into spermatids and form a tail resulting in sperm |
| oogenesis | meiosis produces 2 unevenly divided cells and they divide so there is 4, once again favored so 1/4 gets most of the cytoplasm at that one is an egg, remaining 3 lil ones are polar bodies |
| genes | DNA segments, humans have 20-30 thousand, code the traits of an organism by coding proteins |
| double helix | ladder twist shape of DNA |
| purines | double ringed base of DNA, AG |
| pyrimidines | single ringed base of DNA, TC |
| DNA replication | occurs in the nucleus during interphase |
| origin sites | have specific base sequences that initiate DNA replication, prokaryotes have one and eukaryotes have thousands |
| DNA polymerase | enzymes that bring in the new nucleotides for DNA,enzyme builds strands of DNA, catches DNA mistakes |
| helicase | enzyme unwinds parent DNA and separates the two sides in DNA replication |
| topoisomerase | enzyme prevents supercoiling ahead of the fork in DNA replication |
| primase | enzyme "primes" the DNA for replication, forms RNA primer that attaches to the old side and allows new side to form |
| replication fork | DNA copying going in both directions opens up in this bubble at the end |
| okasaki fragments | the pieces of the lagging strands of DNA replication |
| ligase | enzyme that functions as "glue", connecting the okasaki fragments into a single strand in DNA replication |
| semi conservative DNA model | using half of the parent strand so half the new DNA strand is new and half is old |
| telomeres | section at the end of each DNA piece, areas of multiple repetitions that dont contain genes, TTAGGG, protects genes from being shortened |
| telomerase | enzyme that lengthens the telomeres in germ cells and cancer cells |
| RNA | chemical messanger between DNA and the ribosome, half a twisted ladder, bases AUGC |
| mRNA | messenger RNA, copies DNA segments needed to make a specific protein |
| rRNA | ribosomal RNA, makes up the ribosome |
| tRNA | transfer RNA, small chunks of RNA, only 3 bases long that pick up the amino acids needed to make the protein |
| transcription | first step of protein synthesis, copying of DNA onto RNA and carrying of DNA from the nucleus to the ribosome |
| transcription initiation | RNA first phase of transcription RNA polymerase attaches to the promoter on the DNA attaches to the promoter on the DNA |
| DNA promoter | determines where transcription is to start and which of the two sides it is to copy |
| transcription elongation | second phase of transcription RNA polymerase moves along the DNA strand and RNA nucleotides are brought int |
| transcription termination | third phase of transcription a sequence on the DNA for termination, results in pre RNA |
| RNA modification | 1- 5' end is capped with G for protection and works as "attatch here sign", 3' end is given tail of 100-200 As to prevent degradation 2- cutting out nonsense from pre-RNA |
| pre RNA | the result of DNA transcription, still has nonsense code and has not been modified yet |
| introns | non coding sections, nonsense that is cut out of final RNA |
| exons | coding sections of RNA |
| translation | step two of protein synthesis, takes place in ribosome, codosn match up with amino acids |
| codon | triplet of 3 RNA bases that matches up for amino acids |
| start code for protein synthesis | AUG (codon), MET(methionine, amino acid) |
| translation initiation | first phase of translation ribosome binds to mRNA and tRNA (told by the G cap to attach here), start signal is the first amino acid |
| translation elongation | second phase of translation, the amino acids are added one by one, peptide bonds hold them together |
| translation termination | translation stop code is reached |
| A site | aminoacyl, codon enters the ribosome and is read in protein translation |
| P site | peptidyl, tRNA anticodon mathches the codon and drop soff the amino acid |
| E site | codon exits the ribosome |
| mutation | random change in genetic material |
| point/substitution mutation | mutation occurring in only one base, may pass on if occurs in gamete |
| silent mutation | mutation occurring but with no effect |
| missense | substitution mutation still gets an amino acid but the wrong one |
| frameshift mutation | insertion and deletion, adding or losing one or more bases, more disastrous than substitution, the entire chain shifts |
| spontaneous mutation | may be from errors in replication, repair, recombination |
| mutagen | physical or chemical agents that cause mutations to occur (many are cancer causing) |
| DNA bases | adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine |
| RNA bases | adenine, uracil, cytosine, guanine |
| snurps | small nuclear ribonucleic proteins that cut out noncoding sections of RNA |
| Gregor Mendel | Austrian scientist in the mid 19th century, Father of Genetics, studied recessive and dominant traits in peas, law of segregation |
| law of segregation | the 2 alleles separate during gamete formation and each parent has 2 copies of every gene, when sex cells form only one copy goes into each cell |
| allele | genetics, Aa |
| homozygous alleles | two of the same alleles, may be either dominant or recessive, AA, aa |
| heterozygous alleles | two different alleles, Aa |
| phenotype | the traits in genetics that are actually visible, ex 2 red: 4 white |
| genotype | the genes present that will create the traits, ex 2Aa: 4AA |
| punnett square | tool used for predicting traits in genetic by crossing parents |
| dihybrid | two traits are crossed together at the same time, you foil the FfYy, FF YY or smth like that |
| monohybrid | one trait in genetics is crossed at a time, punnett square is used for predicting |
| incomplete dominance | genetics crossing where the appearance of the first generation is a blend of the parents, ex Ff would mean pink |
| pleiotrophy | when the expression of one gene can affect many organs or systems |
| co-dominance | in genetics when the both phenotypes are expressed at the same time equally, ex human blood type AB are both dominant |
| multiple alleles | three or more alleles of a gene in a population (more letters are options for the trait, ex blood type is A B and O all for the same trait) |
| polygenic inheritance | many genes contribute to the trait, ex AABBCCDD or aabbccdd can be human skin color |
| epistasis | one gene alters or interferes with the expression of another, ex Bb determines black vs brown and Cc determines how much of each color or another color like white |
| dosage compensation | when one female X chromosome becomes inactive (barr bodies) |
| Barr Bodies | the extra X chromosome becomes inactive in the female cell |
| hemophilia | blood clotting disorder, sex linked recessive |
| X linked recessive traits | genetic trait, show up in males more because Y chromosomes dont carry as much so theres a greater chance the 1 X chromosome the male has will have the recessive gene (X^a Y) |
| nondisjunction | homologous chromosomes do not separate during meiosis, receives an extra copy and the other receives none, creates polyploidy or aneuploidy |
| polyploidy | entire sets of chromosomes are added, (you get another pair) chromosome abnormality |
| aneuploidy | whole chromosomes are lost or gained, chromosome abnormality |
| Turners syndrome | chromosome abnormality, 45 chromosomes, XO (missing an X), female, short, barrel chest, thick neck, webbing, normal intelligence w possible learning disabilities, heart probs, no barr bodies, sterile |
| triple X syndrome | chromosome abnormality, 47 chromosomes, XXX, female, fairly normal, extra barr body (extra X becomes infunctional) |
| Klinefelter's | chromosome abnormality, 47 chromosomes, XXY, unusually tall, has a barr body, usually sterile, may show breast enlargement, male |
| 45 OY | chromosome abnormality, DOES NOT DEVELOP WITHOUT X |
| Jacob's syndrome | chromosome abnormality, "supermale", 47 chromosomes, XYY, unusually tall, severe acne, not well coordinated, emotionally unstable |
| trisomy 21 | chromosome abnormality, autosomal, down syndrome, mental deficiency, short poor muscle tone, chance increases with mothers age, short, heart probs, less lifespan, slanted eyes, large tongue, hand fold |
| chromosome deletion | section of chromosome is broken off and lost, ex "cry cat syndrome" chromosome 5, Prader willi syndrome (15 dad), angelman syndrome (15 mom) |
| Cri-du-Chat | "cry cat syndrome", chromosome deletion on chromosome 5, mental retardation, cry like a cat, die in infancy |
| Prader-Willi syndrome | deletion on chromosome 15 from dad, mental retardation, obesity, short |
| Angelman syndrome | deletion on chromosome 15 from mom, jerky movements, uncontrollable laughter |
| duplication chromosome error | part of a chromosome is copied twice at crossing over |
| translocation chromosome error | part of chromosome breaks off and reattaches to another chromosome |
| Fragile X | part of the X chromosome hangs by a thin thread of DNA, most common form of mental deficiency, hyperactive or autistic, protruding ears, short stature, long face, prominent jaw |
| PKU | phenylketonuria, autosomal recessive disorder, missing enzyme to break down phenylalanine, corrected by diet otherwise mental deficiency (build up of protein on brain) |
| cystic fibrosis | autosomal recessive disorder, 1/20 in US are carriers, body cells secrete excess mucus |
| Tay Sachs | autosomal recessive disorder, blindness, mental deficiency, death by age 5, unable to break down lipids |
| Huntington's disease | autosomal dominant disorder, chromosome 4 has too many repetitions of CAG, symptoms around age 40, uncontrollable muscle spasms, personality changes, insanity |
| progeria | autosomal dominant disorder, rapid aging 7-8x normal rate, caused by spontaneous mutation |
| achondroplasia | autosomal dominant disorder, dwarfism |
| polydactyly | autosomal dominant disorder, extra fingers or toes |
| methemoglobinemia | autosomal recessive disorder, accumulation of methemoglobin in the blood, results in bluish skin, relatively harmless |
| osteogenesis imperfecta | autosomal dominant disorder, weak and brittle bones |
| Linnaeus | swedish botanist famous for coming up with system of naming/classifying animals by relationships and categories |
| George Cuvier | founded paleontology, study of fossils, understood extinction is a part of life, believed in catastrophism |
| James Hutton | scottish geologist, believed that process that formed the earth are still working today, believed in gradualism (slow and continuous changes to the earth) |
| Charles Lyell | geologist who was friends w Darwin, Theory of Uniformitarianism, wrong because the earths changes arent THAT balanced |
| Jean Baptiste de Lamarck | published theory of evolution by perfection before Darwin, Law of Use and Disuse (parts of body unused deteriorate), inheritance of acquired traits, WRONNGGG |
| Thomas Malthus | mathematician that studied populations, believed that the population would eventually outgrow the food supply |
| Charles Darwin | studiesd finches and developed the theory of evolution in his Origin of Species and first developed natural selection |
| natural selection | theory developed by charles darwin, individuals survive and reproduce unequally, variations can lead to ease to get resources, the environment will select which traits are dominant, SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST |
| homologous structures | anatomy similar between species that has the same structure but different functions, ex forelimbs of mammals |
| analogous structures | anatomy similar between species that have the same functions but different structures, ex wing of bird vs butterfly |
| vestigial organs | structures of marginal or no use to an organism that used to perform a function but doesnt after evolution |
| artificial selection | deliberately selecting plants and animals to breed for specific traits, produces changes in the population of that species |
| fitness ability | based off of survival, longevity, early maturity reproduction is key |
| directional selection | shifts frequency of a trait in 1 direction by favoring what was once rare, minority becomes majority |
| stablilizing selection | acts against extreme phenotypes, favors most intermediate trait, reduces variation, seen when environments are NOT CHANGING |
| disruptive/diversifying selection | environmental conditions vary so BOTH extremes of a trait are favored, diverse traits, frequency shifts to both ends |
| protective coloration | type of adaptation, camouflage |
| aposematic coloration | type of adaptation, bright colors serve as a warning |
| mimicry | type of adaptation, one organism resembles another species, not exact copies, Batesian-one is harmless and the other is not, Mullerian-harmful mimics harmful creating bigger group (ex all bees have yellow and black coloring) |
| deceptive coloration | type of adaptation, fake eyes or fake heads |
| commensalism | symbiotic relationship, one organism benefits and the other is unaffected |
| symbiotic adaptations | two organisms live together |
| mutualism | symbiotic relationship, beneficial to both |
| parasitism | symbiotic relationship, one organism is benefited and the other is harmed |
| causes of population diversity/evolution (5) | natural selection, mutations, non random mating, gene flow, genetic drift |
| gene flow | process of gaining or losing alleles in a population due to migration |
| gene pool | all the available genes in a population |
| genetic drift | change in allele frequencies in the gene pool of a population due to chance events, 2 situations, bottleneck and founder |
| bottleneck effect | kind of genetic drift, DISASTERS reduce population, survival is random, final population does not resemble original |
| founder effect | kind of genetic drift, a few individuals colonize an isolated place, the smaller the sample the less the colonists will represent the gene pool of the population they left |
| Hardy-Weinburg Theory | the frequencies of alleles and genotypes remain constant from generation to generation providing ONLY Mendelian genetics are at work (very rare occurance) |
| Hardy-Weinburg Equilibrium | in order for gene pools to stay constant through generation there must be: large population, no migration, no mutations, random mating, no natural selection |
| Hardy-Weinburg Equations | p (dominant allele) + q (recessive allele)= 1 p²(homozygous dominant)+2pq (heterozygous dominant)+q²(homozygous recessive)=1 |
| prezygotic barriers | factors that prevent two species from producing offspring by preventing fertilization from even happening |
| habitat/ecological isolation | form of prezygotic barrier for interspecies mating, groups may be in the same area but breed in different parts of the area |
| temporal isolation | form of prezygotic barrier for interspecies mating, groups reproduce at different times of day, season or year |
| behavioral isolation | form of prezygotic barrier for interspecies mating, species look for certain signals in courtship behaviors and they dont share those behaviors (sounds, chemicals, visuals) |
| mechanical isolation | form of prezygotic barrier for interspecies mating, genital organs between species do not match |
| gamete isolation | form of prezygotic barrier for interspecies mating, mating may occur but fertilization does not occur because egg and sperm are not compatible molecularly or chemically |
| post zygotic isolation | factors that prevent two species from producing offspring by preventing development of fertile offspring even if fertilization occurs |
| hybrid inviability | form of post zygotic isolation for interspecies mating, genes from parents of different species do not interact properly for normal development |
| hybrid sterility | form of post zygotic isolation for interspecies mating, if offspring develops successfully it cannot breed, ex-mule |
| hybrid breakdown | form of post zygotic isolation for interspecies mating, rare case of interspecies hybrid able to make, the F2 will have multiple defects |
| speciation | the evolution or formation of a new species |
| sympatric speciation | speciation occurring within the same geographic area, most often occurs by polyploidy where offspring gets extra sets of chromosomes |
| allopatric speciation | one species is separated by a physical barrier into 2 or more isolated populations |
| adaptive radiation | form of speciation, evolution of many diverse species from a common ancestor when introduced to a new environment |
| gradualism | evolution of a new species is gradual, evolving over a long span of time |
| punctuated equilibrium | speciation occurs after long periods of inactivity (stasis) followed by rapid bursts of evolution |
| coevolution | a change in one species causes a change in another species |
| convergent evolution | 2 distantly or unrelated organisms come to resemble each other, usually resulting from similar environments |
| phylogeny | evolutionary history of a species |
| phylogenetic tree | diagram of probable evolutionary relationships between groups |
| ecology | the study of interactions of organisms with other organisms and the environment |
| abiotic factors | nonliving factors in an environment, ex sun wind water rocks and soil |
| organism | first level of ecology, just one individual |
| population | second level of ecology, all organisms within an area that are the same species |
| community | third level of ecology, various populations living within the same habitat |
| ecosystem | fourth level of ecology, a community populations plus the abiotic factors in the habitat |
| biosphere | fifth level of ecology, portion of earth where living things are found |
| clumped dispersion | most common kind of population dispersion, individuals group together to be near resources or mates, also offers protection |
| uniform dispersion | most rare kind of population dispersion, territorial behaviors are common, organisms are protecting their food, spaces and refuges |
| random dispersion | rare form of population dispersion, individuals do not interact strongly with one another or resources are plentiful, mostly found in the rain forest |
| exponential growth model | population growth model where birth rate exceeds death rate, no limits to resources, graph takes j shape |
| logistic growth model | population growth model where population cannot reach its biotic potential due to environmental limits and carrying capacity, graph looks like an s |
| density dependent controls | factors that lower a population due to high density, overcrowding increases predation, disease, parasites and competition |
| density independent controls | factors that lower a population but are not a result of population size, ex natural disasters |
| r selection | selection favors organisms with the highest reproductive rate, population is below carrying capacity, resources lots, reproduction cost low, usually small animals with short lifespan (bugs) |
| k selection | selection favors organisms who can compete effectively and use resources, population close to carrying capacity, limited resources, high reproduction cost, large animals, longer lifespan, fewer but more attention given to kids, (mammals) |
| predation | organism interaction, consumer gets energy from a prey, diversity and abundance of one effects the other, adaptations in one prompt adaptations in the other |
| competition | one species prevents other from getting resources, may be among members of same or different populations |
| niche | the role that an organism plays in its habitat, includes conditions resources and interaction necessary for survival and reproduction |
| competitive exclusion | if 2 species are competing for resource, the one that is better at using it will force the other to extinction, no 2 species can occupy the same niche when resources are limited |
| trophic levels | feeding relationships and tiers in food chains |
| producers | autotrophs, green plants that make energy |
| primary consumers | herbivores, first level consumers that eat producers |
| secondary consumers | carnivores that eat primary consumers |
| teriary consumers | eat secondary consumers |
| detritivore | gets energy from detritus or dead organic matter (worms) |
| decomposers | break down dead organic matter (bacteria and fungi) |
| food chain | pathways along which energy is transferred |
| primary productivity | there are more individuals at the lower trophic levels because dead organisms only pass on like 10% of the energy they consume to their predators |
| GPP | gross primary production, total primary productivity passed on from producers to consumers from photosynthesis |
| NPP | GPP minus the energy used by producer for respiration |
| ecological pyramids | show the relationship of trophic levels |
| pyramid of biomass | ecological pyramid, shows the total mass of living tissue on each level |
| pyramid of numbers | ecological pyramid, shows the # of organisms at each level |
| pyramid of energy | ecological pyramid, shows the total amount of incoming energy for each level |
| trophic cascades | occurs when numbers in one level increase or decrease causing ecological pyramid to collapse, predators don't keep herbivores in low numbers for plants to thrive and dominoes |
| ecological succession | a change within a community following a disturbance |
| primary succession | ecological succession where no soil is left, ex after volcanic eruption or glacial retreat |
| secondary succession | ecological succession where soil is left intact, ex after fire or hurricane |
| pioneer species | the first species to start establishing and growing after a disturbance and ecological succession |
| facilitation | one group of organisms paves the way for the next |
| climax community | species that stabilizes under the conditions of the habitat |
| keystone species | dominant competitor, one that has a major affect on all the others in a habitat |
| biome | a large area characterized by particular climate, plants and animals |
| littoral zone | a large area characterized by particular climate, plants and animals |
| limnetic zone | surface area of lake away from shore, lots of light |
| profundal zone | area in freshwater environment below where light penetrates |
| eutrophic | lake with abundant nutrients, shallow with lots of sunlight |
| oligotrophic | lake with organic matter/nutrients are scarce, deeper with less sun |
| mesotrophic | lake in between eutrophic and oligotrophic, semi nutrient and sunny |
| wetlands | covered with water, most diverse of biomes, ex everglades (swamps, marshes) |
| estuaries | where fresh water meets salt water, salinity varies, often nurseries and breeding grounds for animals |
| intertidal zone | alternately submerged and exposed by tides, subject to huge variations in nutrients and temperature (rocky beaches ect) |
| coral reefs | warm tropical waters, sunlight penetrates, very sensitive biome, grows slowly, lots of life |
| pelagic zone | far from coast, includes plankton and large free swimming animals, open ocean |
| benthos zone | the more shallow areas are productive with bacteria, fungi, seaweeds, dep ares are very cold and are under pressure, there is no light but oxygen is present, ocean environment |
| terrestrial biome | determined by major physical feature or climate |
| aquatic biome | determined by biological life |
| tropical forest | contains 1/2 of earths species, pronounced vertical stratification canopy is the top, huge competition for space and light, 140-150 cm of rainfall |
| savannah | dry biome, borders grasslands, widely spaced trees, lots of grazing animals with predators |
| desert | less than 25cm rainfall, animals live in deep cool burrows, may be active only at night, plants with wide shallow roots or long tap roots for deeper water |
| chaparral/shrublands | biome, rainy winters, hot dry summers, periodic fires, woody shrubs dominate |
| temperate grassland | large biome, animals are grazing, occasional drought and fires, soil very fertile (US midland farms) |
| coniferous forest/taiga | trees with cones, winters are long and cold, animals usually include deer, moose, bear, wolves, lynx, plants are pine and spruces |
| tundra | permafrost, cold temperatures, high winds, no trees, land is often boggy, short growing seasons, think wet ireland stuff winter |
| eutrophication | excess nutrients stimulate excessive plant growth (algal bloom), generally from outside sources, can disrupt ecosystem |
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