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BIO 103 Final Exam
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| 3' end | the end of the DNA strand with a hydroxyl group branching off of the 3' carbon |
| 5' end | the end of the DNA strand ending in a phosphate group |
| acid | any substance that dissociates in water to increase the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration; lowers the pH |
| active site | the region of an enzyme surface where a specific substrate (reactant) binds |
| active transport | the pumping of individual ions or other molecules across a cellular membrane from a region of lower concentration to one of higher concentration (against the gradient); this transport process requires energy which typically requires the use of ATP |
| adenosine triphosphate | nucleotide made of adenine, ribose sugar, & 3 phosphates; ATP is the chemical energy within cells for metabolism |
| adhesion | the tendency of water to cling to other polar compounds due to hydrogen bonding |
| aerobic respiration | process that results in the complete oxidation of glucose using oxygen as the final electron acceptor for the electron transport chain; produces ATP |
| allele | alternative form of a gene |
| alpha helix | a form of secondary structure in proteins where the polypeptide chain is wound into a spiral due to the interactions between amino and carboxyl groups in the peptide backbone |
| amino acid | the basic building block of proteins; made of a central carbon, a carboxyl group, an amino group, and an -R group; only the side group differs in each structure. |
| anaerobic | any process that can occur without oxygen (such as fermentation) |
| anaphase | in mitosis and meiosis II, the stage where sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite poles of a cell; in meiosis I, it is the separation of homologous chromosomes |
| antiparallel | in a double helix the direction of the nucleotides in one strand is opposite to their direction in the other strand |
| autosome | any eukaryotic chromosome that is not a sex chromosome; females and males have the same number and kind of this type of chromosome |
| autotroph | an organism able to build all of the complex organic molecules that it requires as its own food source, using only simple inorganic compounds |
| bacillus | rod-shaped bacteria |
| beta sheet | a form of secondary structure in proteins where the polypeptide folds back on itself one or more times to form a more stable structure; stabilized by hydrogen bonding |
| binary fission | asexual reproduction by division of one cell/body into two equal halves or nearly equal parts |
| capsule | in bacteria, a gelatin-like layer surrounding the cell wall; helps bacteria stick to one another and to other surfaces |
| carbohydrate | an organic compound consisting of a chain or ring of atoms in which hydrogen and oxygen are attached in a 2:1 ratio; CH2O formula; examples include sugars, starches, glycogen, and cellulose. |
| carrier protein | a membrane protein that binds to a specific molecule that cannot cross the plasma membrane and allows passage of the molecule through the membrane |
| catalyst | a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction, but is not changed or consumed by the reaction |
| channel protein | protein forming an aqueous pore spanning the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane; allows diffusion of certain ions that cannot normally pass through the membrane to move across; Na+, Ca+2, K+. |
| Chargaff's rules | state that DNA from any cell of all organisms should have a 1:1 ratio of pyrimidine and purine bases and that the amount of guanine is equal to cytosine and the amount of adenine is equal to thymine |
| chloroplast | an organelle present in plants and algae that contains chlorophyll and other pigments; carries out photosynthesis |
| chromatin | a complex of DNA and proteins that eukaryotic chromosomes are made of; uncoiled in interphase; condenses to form visible chromosomes in prophase |
| cleavage furrow | the constriction that forms in animal cells that is responsible for dividing the cell into two daughter cells |
| coccus | spherical shaped bacteria |
| codon | the basic unit of the genetic code; a sequence of three nucleotides in DNA or RNA that codes for one amino acid |
| cohesion | the sticking together together of particles of the same substance; such as water, due to hydrogen bonding |
| crossing over | in meiosis, the exchange of corresponding chromatid segments between homologous chromosomes; responsible for genetic variation and "uniqueness" |
| cytosol | the fluid portion of the cytoplasm; contains the dissolved molecules and ions |
| deletion | a mutation where part of the chromosome is lost; can be fatal if too much information is lost |
| denaturation | the loss of the native configuration of a protein as a result of excessive heat, extremes, in pH, or chemical modification; usually causes biological inactivity |
| deoxyribonucleic acid | the genetic material of all organisms; composed of two complementary chains of nucleotides would into a double helix |
| deoxyribose | pentose sugar found in DNA |
| diffusion | the net movement of particles from a region of where they are more concentrated to a region where they are less concentrated |
| diploid | having two sets of chromosomes (2n) |
| dissacharide | a carbohydrate formed of two simple sugar molecules bonded covalently |
| DNA polymerase | a class of enzymes that synthesize DNA from a preexisting DNA template; only in a 5' --> 3' direction and requires a primer to begin |
| dominant | an allele that is expressed when it is present in either the homozygous or heterozygous condition |
| double helix | the structure of DNA; two complementary strands coil around a common helical axis |
| duplication | a mutation in which a portion of a chromosome is copied |
| endocytosis | a process by which cells absorb molecules (such as proteins) by engulfing them; used by all cells of the body because most substances important to them are large polar molecules that cannot pass through the plasma membrane |
| endoplasmic reticulum | internal membrane system made of channels and interconnections within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells; divided into two different types - rough and smooth |
| enzyme | a protein that is capable of speeding up specific chemical reactions by lowering the required activation energy |
| eukaryote | a cell characterized by membrane-bound organelles, most notably the nucleus, and one that possess chromosomes; organisms are made of such cells |
| exergonic | describes a chemical reaction in which the products contain less free energy than the reactants, so that free energy is released in the reaction |
| exocytosis | a type of bulk transport out of cells in which a vacuole fuses with the plasma membrane, discharging the vacuole's contents to the outside |
| fermentation | the extraction of energy, through the use of enzymes, from organic compounds without the use of oxygen |
| flagella | a long, threadlike structure that protrudes from the surface of the cell and is used in locomotion |
| gamete | a haploid reproductive cell |
| gene | a sequence of DNA nucleotides on a chromosome |
| genotype | the genetic makeup of a cell, organism, or an individual |
| glucose | a common six-carbon sugar (C6H12O6); the most common monosaccharide in most organisms |
| glycolysis | the anaerobic breakdown of glucose; this process makes produces two molecules of pyruvate with a net of two molecules of ATP |
| haploid | having only one set of chromosomes (n) |
| heterozygous | having two different alleles for the same gene; Aa |
| hydrogen bond | a weak association formed with hydrogen in polar covalent bonds; the partially positive hydrogen is attracted to partially negative atoms in polar covalent bonds |
| hypertonic | a solution with a higher concentration of solutes than the cell; a cell in this environment tends to lose water by osmosis |
| incomplete dominance | describes a case where two or more alleles do not display clear dominance; the heterozygote is intermediate between the homozygous forms |
| interphase | the period between two mitotic or meiotic divisions in which a cell grows and its DNA replicates; includes G1, S, G2 phases |
| ionic bond | a type of chemical bond formed through an electrical attraction between two oppositely charged ions |
| karyotype | the chromosomes of a cell, usually displayed in a systematic arrangement of chromosome pairs in descending order of size; this can be used to study abnormalities, mutations, etc |
| lagging strand | the DNA strand that is built discontinuously because of the 5' --> 3' directionality during replication, and the antiparallel nature of DNA |
| leading strand | the DNA strand that can be synthesized continuously from the origin of replication |
| lysosome | a membrane-bound vesicle that contains digestive enzymes; produced by the Golgi apparatus |
| messenger RNA | the RNA transcribed that is complementary to one strand of DNA; when translated by the ribosome, will form a protein |
| mitochondrion | the organelle called the powerhouse of the cell; consists of an outer membrane, an elaborate inner membrane that supports the synthesis of ATP, and soluble matrix containing Krebs cycle enzymes |
| monomer | the smallest chemical building block of a polymer |
| mutation | a permanent change in the cell's DNA |
| nondisjunction | the failure of homologues or sister chromatids to separate during meiosis or mitosis. resulting in an abnormal number of chromosomes |
| nonpolar covalent molecule | a type of covalent bond where electrons are shared equally; the overall charge is neutral |
| nucleoid | the area of a prokaryotic cell, usually near the center, that contains the genetic information |
| nucleotide | the building block (monomer) of a nucleic acid; made of a five-carbon sugar (either ribose or deoxyribose), a phosphate, and a nitrogenous base |
| nucleus | in atoms, the central core containing protons and neutrons; in eukaryotic cells, the membrane-bound organelle that house the DNA |
| osmosis | movement of water is from the side containing a lower concentration of solute to the side containing a higher concentration |
| passive transport | the movement of substances across the cell membrane without the spending of energy |
| pedigree | a graphic representation of matings and offspring over multiple generations for a particular genetic trait, such as albinism or hemophilia |
| pH | used to measure acidity and basicity; ranges from 0-14; 7 is neutral; below 7 is acidic and above 7 is basic |
| phenotype | the observable (physical) characteristics of an organism, which are determined by its genetic makeup and environmental factors |
| phospholipid bilayer | the main component of cell membranes; cell membranes naturally associate in a two-layer with hydrophobic fatty acids turned inward and hydrophilic phosphate groups facing outward on both sides |
| pili | extensions of a bacterial cell enabling it to transfer genetic materials from one individual to another; also allows it to stick or attach to surfaces or other bacteria |
| polar covalent bond | a covalent bond in which electrons are shared unequally due to differences in electronegativity of the atoms involved in bonding; the molecule is neutral overall. |
| polygenic inheritance | describes a type of inheritance in which more than one gene affects a trait; produces a wide range of traits instead of 2 or 3 distinct traits; example is height in human beings |
| polypeptide | a molecule consisting of many joined amino acids; not usually as complex as a protein |
| prokaryote | a bacteria; a cell lacking a membrane-bound nucleus or membrane-bound organelles |
| prophase | the phase of cell division when the condensed chromosomes become visible; this stage ends when the nuclear envelope has completely broken down; the assembly of the spindle apparatus takes place during this phase |
| protein | a chain of amino acid joined by peptide bonds |
| protist | a eukaryotic microorganism; they have simple cellular organization, some favoring plants, animals, and fungi |
| Punnett Square | a diagrammatic way of showing the possible genotypes and phenotypes of genetic crosses |
| recessive allele | an allele that is only expressed when present in the homozygous condition; can be "hidden" by the expression of a dominant allele in the heterozygous condition |
| ribose | pentose carbon sugar found in RNA |
| sister chromatids | one of two identical copies of each chromosome, still linked at the centromere |
| spindle apparatus | the assembly that carries out the separation of chromosomes during cell division; composed of microtubules and assembled during prophase |
| start codon | indicates the site of the beginning of mRNA translation; methionine |
| stop codon | any of the three codons that indicate the point at which mRNA translation is to be terminated |
| substrate | the molecule on which an enzyme acts (attaches) |
| synapsis | the point-by-point alignment of chromosomes that occurs before the first meiotic division; crossing over takes place during this |
| telophase | the phase of cell division where the spindle breaks down, the nuclear envelope of each daughter cell forms, and the chromosomes uncoil and become loosely arranged |
| tetrad | four synapsed chromatids |
| transcription | the assembly of an RNA molecule that is complementary to a strand of DNA |
| translation | the assembly of a protein on the ribosomes, using mRNA to specify the order of the amino acids |
| trisomy | the condition in which an addition chromosome has been gained due to nondisjunction during meiosis, and the diploid embryo has three of these autosomes; example is Down Syndrome |
| X chromosome | one of the two sex chromosomes; female individuals have two of these chromosomes |
| Y chromosome | one of the two sex chromosomes; male individuals have this type of chromosome |
| zygote | the diploid cell (2n) resulting from the joining of male and female gametes (fertilization) |
Created by:
fmreynolds1
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