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Immunology
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| A form of first line defense in which an acidic environment is provided so that most enzymes of pathogens are denatured therefore, killing the organisms | Hydrochloric acid in the stomach |
| Second line of defense involves these. | White blood cells |
| Non-specific white blood cells or blood cells that respond to any foreign invader. | Phagocytes |
| White blood cells considered highly specific. | Lymphocytes |
| Hair like organelles which help to transport pathogens that stick to the mucus inside the lungs out of the lungs. | Cilia |
| First line of defense that protects us from pathogens. | Physical barrier |
| Two types of white blood cells that carry out phagocytosis. | Macrophage and neutrophils |
| Proteins that coat the bacterium after a series of reactions in phagocytosis. | Opsonins |
| Name of the vesicle formed when neutrophils engulf the bacterium. | Phagosome |
| Type of enzyme released by the lysosome into the phagosome. | Hydrolytic |
| Substance that is non-self and provokes an immune response. | Antigen |
| Another name for antibodies. | Immunoglobulins |
| What are antibodies made up of? | Four polypeptide chains |
| Name two chains present in the structure of an antibody and describe them. | Heavy chains- long and Light chains-short |
| What holds the chains together in the structure of an antibody? | Disulfide Bridges |
| What is the Hinge Region? | Flexible area that allows slight movement of the molecule when binding antigens |
| What is the name of the two sites on an antibody? | Binding Sites |
| Antibodies produced by a single clone of B lymphocytes. | Monoclonal Antibodies |
| Which part of the mouse are antibodies extracted from? | Spleen |
| How do doctors allow the B lymphocytes to divide outside of the body? | Mix B lymphocytes with cancer cells |
| What name is given to the B lymphocytes and cancer cells when they are fused? | Hybridoma Cellls |
| Process that transforms the monoclonal antibodies produced from the mouse to human like cells. | Humanisation |
| Name three diseases that monoclonal antibodies are used to diagnose. | Influenza, Chlamydia and Hepatitis |
| What hormone do pregnancy test rely on to determine if a woman is pregnant? | Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin (hCG) |
| Which part of the membrane in a pregnancy test are the colored particles located? | Nitrocellulose |
| How many lines have to appear for a pregnancy test to be positive? | 2 |
| What is OPSONIZATION? | Opsonization is an immune process which uses opsonins to tag foreign pathogens for elimination by phagocytes |
| Purpose of the first line of defense? | To prevent the entry of pathogens |
| Second line of defense involves | White blood cells (non-specific phagocytes and highly specific lymphocytes) |
| What are four aims of the second line of defense? | 1) Neutralize any toxins produced by the pathogen 2) Prevent the pathogen multiplying 3) Kill the pathogen 4) Remove any remains of the pathogen |
| State 3 physical barriers (first line defenses) | 1) Skin 2) Epithelia covered in mucus 3) Hydrochloric acid in the stomach |
| Phagocytosis | The process by which large particles are taken up by cells, in the form of vacuoles (vesicles) formed from the cell surface membrane. |
| Two types of phagocytic white blood cells. | 1) Macrophages 2) Neutrophils |
| Inflammation | A process which occurs at the site of an infection characterized by swelling, redness and pain. |
| What do white blood cells release during inflammation? | Histamine |
| What are three effects of histamine in the inflammatory response? | 1) Dilation of blood vessels, increased blood flow to the area 2) Capillaries more leaky so phagocytes can move out of bloodstream and to infection site. 3) Nerve endings become more sensitive |
| What is pus? | The dead remains of bacteria and phagocytes found in inflamed areas. |
| Immunity | 1) The ability of organisms to resist infection by protecting against disease-causing microorganisms that invade their bodies. 2) The recognition of foreign material and the production of chemicals to help destroy it. |
| Antigen | Any substance that is recognized as non-self (foreign) by the immune system and provokes an immune response. They are usually proteins, glycoproteins or polysaccharides on the surface membrances of pathogens or diseased cells. |
| Pathogen | Pathogens are disease causing microorganisms/agents. One pathogen can have a number of antigens. |
| Antibodies (immunoglobulins) | Proteins synthesized by plasma cells (a type of B-lymphocytes) of the immune system. These act against antigens by binding precisely with them. Each antigen has it's own separate antibody. |
| State the parts of an antibody. | 4 polypeptide chains (two heavy chains, two light chains held together by disulphide bridges) hinge region, antigen binding sites, constant region, variable region. |
| What is the relationship between antibodies and phagocytes? | Antibodies make phagocytosis of pathogens easier and more effective. |
| Myasthena gravis | An autoimmune condition in which the B lymphocytes fail to distinguish between self and non-self. Antibodies are produced against acetylcholine receptors of muscle nerve cells. |
| Autoimmune disease | A disease that results from the body's immune system attacking its own cells and tissues. |
| Leukaemia | Abnormal white blood cells rapidly reproduce by mitosis. Bone marrow resources are used to make these abnormal cells and cell count of other useful cells decreases. |
| Monoclonal antibody | A single type of antibody from just one clone of a B lymphocyte. |
| Step 1 in traditional monoclonal antibody production | A mouse/animal is exposed to antigen for which antibodies are desired. |
| Step 2 in traditional monoclonal antibody production | Mouse produces many B-lymphocytes in response. These are extracted from the spleen of the mouse. |
| Step 3 in traditional monoclonal antibody production | B-lymphocytes are mixed with tumor cells in the presence of polyethlene glycol (a fusogen). The result is called hybridoma cells. |
| Step 4 in traditional monoclonal antibody production | Hybridoma cells are separated into individual containers . Each clone is tested to see if it is producing the desired antibody. |
| Step 5 in traditional monoclonal antibody production | Any clone producing the desired antibody is grown on a large scale and the antibody is extracted, purified and modified. |
| Name a few diseases uses of monoclonal antibodies. | Diagnosis of influenza, hepatitis and Chlamydia, certain cancers (e.g. prostate) |
| How do MABs work in diagnosing conditions? | 1) They can be used to directly bind to an antigen confirming the presence of a specific pathogen. 2) They can also detect antibodies produced by an individual indirectly confirming a pathogen's presence. |
| How do MABs work in DIRECTLY treating diseases? | MABs are produced against a particular antigen on a diseased cell (eg. cancer cell) and then administered to the individual to make the cell non-functional. Eg.Herceptin cancer drug |
| How do MABs work in INDIRECTLY treating diseases? | MABS are attached to a radioactive or cytotoxic drugs. When they bind to the diseased cells, the cells are killed. |
| What is the basis for using MABs in preganancy testing? | The placenta of pregnant women produces a hormone called human chorionic gonadotrophin(HCG) and this is excreted in urine. Hormones are proteins and antibodies can be produced specific to the antigens on their surface. |
| Step 1 of MABs in preganancy testing | Urine sample moves up test strip which contains antibodies linked to coloured particles(dye/latex). |
| Step 2 of MABs in preganancy testing | If HCG is present, it combines with the antibodies linked to the coloured particles. |
| Step 3 of MABs in preganancy testing | The HCG-antibody-colour complex moves along the strip until it reaches a narrow region(test region) where another type of monoclonal antibody is immobilized. |
| Step 4 of MABs in preganancy testing | The HCG-antibody-colour complex is trapped by these second antibodies creating a coloured line. |
| Step 5 of MABs in preganancy testing | The liquid moves towards the end of the strip (control region) where it meets another set of immobilised monoclonal antibodies. This traps the coloured particles whether or not the solution contains HCG. This creates a second coloured line. |
| Step 6 of MABs in preganancy testing | A positive test has two coloured lines, one from the test region and the other from the control region. |
| The two types of lymphocytes | B lymphocytes (B cells) and T lymphocytes (T cells) |
| Main function of B lymphocytes | Humoral immunity - involving antibodies which are present in body fluids or 'humours'. |
| Main function of T lymphocytes | Cell mediated immunity - involving cells. |
| Where are lymhocytes formed? | Stem cells of the bone marrow. |
| Where do B lymphocytes mature? | Bone marrow |
| Where do T lymphocytes mature? | Thymus gland |
| Primary immune response | Occurs upon first exposure to a pathogen. It features the specific B lymphocytes, plasma cells and the antibodies produced together with the production of memory cells. |
| Secondary immune response | Upon second exposure to a pathogen, memory cells become activated and rapidly divide into plasma cells which secrete antibodies. Memory cells provide long-term immunity. |
| What are the main characteristics of the secondary immune response? | It is more rapid and of greater intensity than the primary immune response. Pathogens are destroyed before they have a chance to multiply and harm the body. |
| Step 1 : Humoral immune response | Invading pathogen produces antigens that are taken up by macrophages by phagocytosis. Antigen can also be bound by B cells and taken into the cell for processing. |
| Step 2 : Humoral immune response | Macrophages and B cells process the antigens and bind them to a MHC protein which presents the antigen on their surface. |
| Step 3 : Humoral immune response | A T helper cell attaches to the processed antigen on the macrophage cell and becomes activated to interact with B-cells. |
| Step 4 : Humoral immune response | T helper cells attach to the B-cell with MHC proteins with antigens displayed. |
| Step 5 : Humoral immune response | B-lymphocyte becomes activated to divide by mitosis (clonal expansion) to give a clone of plasma cells. Memory cells are also produced. |
| Step 6 : Humoral immune response | The cloned plasma cells produce antibodies that exactly fit antigens on the pathogen's surface. |
| Step 7 : Humoral immune response | The antibodies attach to antigens on the pathogen, causing agglutination(clumping together) and lysis of the pathogen, thereby destroying it (primary response) |
| Step 8: Humoral immune response | Some B lymphocytes develop into memory cells that survive for long periods. Future invasions by the same pathogen lead to rapid division of memory cells, some of which develop into plasma cells that produce antibodies. (secondary response). |
| What do B lymphocytes respond to? | Non-self (foreign) cells and the foreign products such as toxins which they produce. |
| What do T lymphocytes respond to? | An organism's own cells that have been invaded by non-self material eg. a virus, bacterium or a cancer cell. They also respond to transplanted material, which is genetically different. |
| How can T lymphocytes distinguish between self and non-self antigens? | Antigen presenting cells such as macrophages and B cells display processed antigens on their surface as a signal. |
| Why is it called cell-mediated immunity? | T lymphocytes will only respond to antigens that are attached to a body cell (rather than ones that are within body fluids). |
| Step 1: Cell-mediated immunity using viruses as specific example. | Viruses invade body cells and are also taken in by macrophages during phagocytosis. |
| Step 2: Cell-mediated immunity | Infected body cell and the macrophage cells process the viruses and bind antigens from them to a MHC protein. The MHC protein presents the antigen on the cell surface for recognition by T lymphocytes. |
| Step 3: Cell-mediated immunity | A T helper cell attaches to the antigen on the surface of the macrophage cells and is stimulated to divide by mitosis (clonal expansion). Some T cells develop into memory cells, others produce cytokines that stimulate B cells and macrophages. |
| Step 4: Cell-mediated immunity | The cytokines cause cytotoxic T cells to divide by mitosis. Some of these also form memory cells. |
| Step 5: Cell-mediated immunity | Cytotoxic T cells attach to any body cell presenting the viral antigen (i.e. those infected by the virus) |
| Step 6: Cell-mediated immunity | The cytotoxic T cells produce perforins to make holes in the cell membrane and so destroy the cell, along with the virus it contains. |
| State the 3 MAIN types of T lymphocytes | T helper cells, T cytotoxic cells and Suppressor(Regulator) T cells) |
| Role of T helper cell | Activates cytotoxic T cells, activate B cells, attracts phagocytic cells. |
| Role of T cytotoxic cell | Destroys infected body cells |
| Role of T suppressor cell | Switches off the immune response |
| Immunisation | The process of artificially inducing immunity (the ability to resist infection). |
| Natural immunity | Inherited or acquired as part of normal life processes e.g as a result of having had a disease. |
| Artificial immunity | Acquired as a result of the deliberate exposure of the body to antibodies or antigens in non-natural circumstances e.g. vaccination |
| Passive immunity | Acquired from the introduction of antibodies from another individual, rather than one's own immune system. It is generally short-lived. |
| Active immunity | Immunity results from the activities of an individual's own immune system, rather than an outside source. It is generally long lasting. |
| Natural passive immunity | Occurs when an individual receives antibodies from their mother via placenta as a fetus or from mother's breast milk. |
| Artificial passive immunity | Occurs when antibodies from another individual are injected e.g. in treatment of tetanus and diphtheria. |
| Natural active immunity | Results from an individual becoming infected with a disease under normal circumstances. The body produces its own antibodies and may continue to do so for many years. |
| Artificial active immunity | It involves inducing an immune response by introducing antigens into the body by injection(inoculation) or by mouth. Process called vaccination. |
| State 3 forms of vaccine | Living attenuated microorganisms, dead micro-organisms, genetically engineered microorganisms. |
| Antigenic drift | Antigens changing gradually over time. |
| Antigenic shift | Antigens changing suddenly through frequent mutations |
| Antigenic concealment | Pathogens 'hiding away' from the body's immune system |
| State 3 reasons why vaccination was effective at eliminating smallpox. | 1) The vaccine was simple, safe, easily stored and readily available 2) The virus was genetically stable and did not mutate 3) It was a live vaccine which could reproduce in the host and enable lasting immunity to build. |
| State 3 reasons why vaccines were not effective in eliminating measles, cholera and tuberculosis. | 1) Antigenic shift in pathogen makes it difficult to develop a lasting vaccine 2) 95% of the population would need to be vaccinated at the same time to achieve herd immunity. 3) Increase in persons with HIV (weak immune..) make vaccine less effective. |
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CAPE Biology Unit 2
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