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Chapter 3
Human Development
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Chapter 3 | Forming a New Life |
| How does conception normally occur? | sperm fertilize the ovum |
| What causes multiple births? | mother releases two eggs or fertilized ovum splits in two |
| most likely time to get pregnant | fertile window |
| What is a gamete? | sex cell |
| What is fertilization also called? | conception |
| union of sperm of ovum to produce a zygote | fertilization (or conception) |
| one celled organism resulting from conception | zygote |
| male sex cell | sperm |
| female sex cell | ovum |
| How many ova does a girl have at birth? | about 2 million |
| What is each ovum in? | its own follicle (or small sac) |
| rupture of a mature follicle in either ovary and expulsion of its ovum | ovulation |
| How often does ovulation occur? | about once every 28 days |
| What are the tiny hairs in the fallopian tube? And where do they sweep the ovum to? | cilica, toward the uterus |
| What produces sperm? | testicles |
| How many sperm does the average male produce per day? | several hundred million |
| What do sperm try to do after entering the vagina? | swim through the cervix into the fallopian tubes to the ovum |
| What happens to the ovum and sperm if it is not fertilized? | they die, sperm absorbed by white blood cells in woman's body, ovum passes through the uterus and exits vagina |
| Dizygotic twins are also known as what kind of twins? | fraternal twins |
| Monozygotic twins are also known as what kind of twins? | identical twins |
| twins conceived by the union of two different ovum with two different sperm cells (or one ovum that has split into two before fertilization) | fraternal twins or dizygotic twins |
| Which types of twins are no more alike genetically than any other siblings? | dizygotic (fraternal) |
| Which type of twins is genetically similar? | monozygotic (identical) |
| twins resulting from the division of a single zygote after fertilization | monozygotic twins or identical twins |
| How can monozygotic twins be different? | temperament, left or right handed, genetic makeup |
| Which type of twins run in families? | dizygotic twins |
| Which type of twins occurs by chance? | monozygotic |
| What is the rare third type of twins called? How does it occur? | semi-identical, two sperm fuse with one ovum |
| What are two reasons multiple births are happening more frequently? | delayed childbearing, increased use of fertility drugs |
| What are risks of having multiple births with assisted production? | pregnancy complications, premature delivery, low birth weight infants, disability, death of infant |
| How and when does fertilization normally take place? | takes place during the fertile window when a sperm and ovum unite |
| What is the difference between monozygotic and dizygotic twins? | monozygotic come from one ovum, two sperm; dizygotic come from two ovum and two sperm |
| How do monozygotic twins come about? | two sperm fertilize one ovum |
| How do dizygotic twins come about? | two sperm fertilize two different ova |
| Give reasons for the increase in multiple births in the US. | increase in assisted fertilization, delayed childbearing |
| the science of genetics | the study of heredity |
| inborn factors inherited from biological parents that affect development | heredity |
| What chemical is the basis for heredity? | deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) |
| What are the four basis of DNA? | adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine |
| chemical that carries inherited instructions for the development of all cellular forms of life | deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) |
| sequence of bases within the DNA molecule | genetic code |
| governs the formation of proteins that determine the structure and functions of living cells | genetic code |
| coils of DNA that consist of genes | chromosomes |
| small segments of DNA located in definite positions on particular chromosomes | genes |
| functional units of heredity | genes |
| complete sequence of genes in the human body | human genome |
| _ is the genetic material in all living cells. | DNA |
| DNA consists of four chemical units called _. | bases |
| The _ in a gene tells the cell how to make the proteins that enable it to carry out specific functions. | sequence of bases |
| Every cell (except sex cells) in the human body has _ pairs of chromosomes, _ chromosomes total. | 23, 46 |
| How many chromosomes does each sex cell end up with? | 23 chromosomes |
| process by which non-sex cells divide in half over and over again, how DNA replicates itself | mitosis |
| type of cell division which sex cells undergo when they are developing | meiosis |
| What a cell divides, does it have the same DNA structure as all the others? | yes |
| When cells divide they do what? | differentiate; specialize in a variety of complex bodily functions |
| How are heredity and environment related at conception? | nutrition and stress can affect hormone levels in mother and baby |
| Does the mother or father's genetics determine the child's gender? | fathers |
| At the moment of conception, 23 chromosomes from the sperm and 23 chromosomes from the ovum, do what? | unite to make 23 pairs of chromosomes |
| 22 pairs of chromosomes not related to sexual expression | autosomes |
| 1 pair of chromosomes that determines sex | sex chromosomes |
| XX are the chromosomes for the normal human _. | female |
| XY are the chromosomes for the normal human _. | male |
| Every ovum has which chromosome, X or Y? | X |
| Every sperm has which chromosome, X or Y? | both |
| What is the gene for maleness? | SRY gene |
| When do reproductive systems start to form in embryo? | six to eight weeks after conception |
| How do the male sex organs start forming? | hormones must signal the SRY gene which then triggers cell differentiation and formation of the testes |
| In mice, when the SRY gene was not signaled, what happened to male mice? | they developed female genitals |
| What is the signaling molecule for the female reproductive system? | Wnt-4 |
| The activity of the extra X gene in women can explain what? | gender differences, women are healthier, women live longer |
| Describe the structure of DNA. | four bases make up the genetic code which governs the formation of proteins; thousands of bases from genes which are located on a specific spot of a chromosome; many chromosomes make up the DNA; the whole sequence of DNA makes up the human genome |
| What is the structure of the human genome from largest to smallest? | human genome>DNA>chromosome>gene> (genetic code)>base |
| What is DNA's role in the inheritance of characteristics? | determines traits the child will have |
| Distinguish between mitosis and meiosis. | mitosis-how non-sex cells divide, meiosis- how sex cells divide |
| Who discovered patterns of inheritance by cross-breeding pea plants? | Gregor Mendel, Austrian monk |
| two or more alternative forms of a gene that occupy the same position on paired chromosomes and affect the same trait | alleles |
| possessing two identical alleles for a trait | homozygous |
| possessing two different alleles for a trait | heterozygous |
| pattern of inheritance in which, when a child receives different alleles, only the dominant one is expressed | dominant inheritance |
| pattern of inheritance in which a child receives identical recessive alleles, resulting in expression of a nondominant trait | recessive inheritance |
| pattern of inheritance in which multiple genes at different sites on chromosomes affect a complex trait | polygenic inheritance |
| Are single traits affected by single genes or many genes? | many genes |
| Traits can be affected by _. | mutations |
| permanent alterations in genes or chromosomes that may produce harmful characteristics | mutations |
| How many people have the same genotype? | none, except for monozygotic twins |
| observable characteristics of a person | phenotype |
| genetic makeup of a person, containing both expressed and unexpressed characteristics | genotype |
| The phenotype is the product of what two factors? | genotype, relevant environmental influences |
| combination of genetic and environmental factors to produce certain complex traits | multifactorial transmission |
| abnormal variant of a normal gene | genetic predisposition |
| Explain how environmental factors can affect genetics (multifactorial transmission). | person could be good at playing music but if not provided with instrument when younger or not encouraged to play music, musical ability may not be expressed |
| mechanism that turns genes on or off and determines functions of body cells | epigenesis |
| According to scientists, are a child's genes firmly established before birth? | no |
| What mechanism governs the functioning of genes? | epigenesis |
| Does epigenesis affect DNA structure? | no |
| chemical molecules attached to a gene, which alter the way a cell reads the gene's DNA | epigenesis or epigenetic framework |
| "A code written in pencil in the margins around the DNA," describes what? | epigenetic framework |
| Every cell in the body has a (same or different) DNA sequence; _ differentiates various types of body cells. | same, epigenetic markers |
| When errors arise from epigenetic markers turning the wrong genes one or off, what can happen? | birth defects or disease |
| Epigenetic markers can contribute to what common ailments? | cancer, diabetes, heart disease |
| What environmental factors can affect epigenetic changes? | nutrition, stress, physical activity, smoking |
| What is an example of epigenesis? | genome imprinting |
| differential expression of certain genetic traits | genome imprinting |
| In _, genetic information inherited from the parent of one sex is activated but genetic information from the other parent is not. | imprinted gene pairs |
| gene that produces the same phenotype in the organism whether or not its allele identical | dominant gene |
| gene that produces its characteristic phenotype only when its allele is identical | recessive gene |
| ¬¬_ plays an important role in regulating fetal growth and development. | imprinted genes |
| What happens when a normal pattern of imprinting is disrupted? | abnormal fetal growth or congenital growth disorders |
| What percent of birth disorders affect live births? | 3% |
| What percentage of deaths of infants occur in the first year? | 19.5% |
| Are all genetic or chromosomal abnormalities apparent at birth? | no |
| When do we most clearly see the operation of dominant and recessive transmission? | genetic defects and diseases |
| Are normal genes always dominate over those caring abnormal traits? | no, sometimes the abnormal trait is dominant |
| When one parent has a dominant abnormal gene and one recessive normal gene and the other parent has two recessive normal genes each of their children has a _ chance of inheriting the dominant abnormal gene? | 50 – 50 |
| _ are expressed only if a child receives the same recessive gene from each biological parent. | recessive defects |
| Defects transmitted by (recessive inheritance or dominant inheritance) are more likely to be lethal at an early age. | recessive inheritance |
| Pattern of inheritance in which a child receives two different alleles resulting in partial expression of a trait | incomplete dominance |
| Give an example of incomplete dominance. | people with only one sickle cell allele and one normal allele do not have sickle cell anemia, show some manifestations of the condition |
| pattern of inheritance in which certain characteristics carried on the X chromosome inherited from the mother are transmitted differently to her male and female offspring | sex linked inheritance |
| parent does not have the disorder but can pass on the gene for it to her children | carrier |
| Why are boys more vulnerable to receiving chromosome disorders? | there is no opposite dominant gene on the shorter Y chromosome from the father to override a defect on the X chromosome from the mother |
| Why do chromosome abnormalities typically occur? | errors in cell division that occur during meiosis, can result in extra or missing chromosome |
| Some chromosomal abnormalities occur in the _ during cell division. | autosomes |
| Which syndrome accounts for 40% of all cases of moderate to severe mental retardation? And what chromosome does that usually occur on? | Down syndrome, extra 21st chromosome or translocation of part of the 21st chromosome |
| What are obvious physical characteristics associated with the Down syndrome? | downward sloping skin fold at the inner corners of the eyes |
| What happens to the brain of a Down syndrome child? | appear normal at birth, shrink in volume by young adulthood, resulting in cognitive dysfunction |
| Chromosomal disorder characterized by moderate to severe mental retardation and by such physical signs of the downward sloping skin fold at the inner corners of the eyes | Down syndrome |
| clinical service that advises prospective parents of their probable risk of having children with hereditary defects | genetic counseling |
| a birth defect in which much of the baby's brain is missing and some of the internal organs are malformed | anencephaly |
| a photograph that shows the chromosomes when they are separated and aligned for cell division | karyotype |
| What material can a genetic counselor use to determine risk of prospective parents having abnormal children? | blood, skin, urine, fingerprints, chromosomes |
| What does a genetic counselor do? | tries to help clients understand the mathematical risk of a particular condition, explains its implications, presents information about alternative courses of action |
| Quantitative study of relative heredity and environmental influences on behavior | behavioral genetics |
| a study that seeks to measure how much heredity and environment influence particular traits | behavioral genetics |
| How many genes does the human genome have? | between 20,000 and 25,000 |
| the study of functions and interactions of the various genes | genomics |
| the application of genetic information to therapeutic purposes | medical genetics |
| an experimental technique for repairing or replacing defective genes | gene therapy |
| What ethical issues are involved in genetic testing? | privacy, fair use of genetic information |
| the misconception that a person with the gene for a disease is bound to get the disease | genetic determinism |
| What can genetic testing tell us about a person getting a disease? | only the likelihood |
| What are some concerns with genetic testing? | psychological impact, testing of children, testing could be misused to justify sterilization, abortion of a normal fetus |
| statistical estimate of contribution of heredity to individual differences in a specific trait within a given population | heritability |
| Does heritability refer to the relative influence of heredity and environment between populations or any particular individual? | no, influences may be impossible to separate |
| Does heritability tell us how traits develop or to what extent they can be modified? | no |
| What three types of correlational research do behavioral geneticists use? | family, adoption, twins studies |
| In what study do researchers measure the degree to which biological relatives share certain traits and whether the closeness of the familial relationship is associated with the degree of similarity | family studies |
| Can family studies rule out environmental influences? | no |
| In what study do researchers look at similarities between adopted children and their adoptive families and also between the adopted children and their biological families? | adoption studies |
| Which study compares pairs of monozygotic twins with same sex dizygotic twins? | twins studies |
| In studies of twins, why are same sex twins used? | to avoid confounding effects of gender |
| Term describing tendency of twins to share the same trait or disorder | concordant |
| Even in a trait strongly influenced by heredity, the environment can have a _ impact. | substantial |
| _ can sometimes overcome genetically determined conditions. | Environmental inventions |
| Developmental scientists have come to regard a solely quantitative approach to the study of heredity and environment as _. | simplistic |
| Instead of looking at genes and experience as operating directly on an organism, researchers see both as part of a complex _. | developmental system |
| What factors can shape development? | constitutional factors (related to biological and psychological makeup), social, economic, and cultural factors |
| potential variability depending on environmental conditions in the expression of a hereditary trait | reaction range |
| Heredity can influence whether a reaction range is _. | wide or narrow |
| Instead of a reaction range advocates of a developmental system model prefer to talk about a _. | norm of reaction |
| What do advocates of a developmental system model argue? | development is so complex and effects of differing environments so variable, these limits are unknowable and their effects unpredictable |
| limitation of expression of certain inherited characteristics | canalization |
| Give an example of canalization. | behaviors that depend largely on maturation appear only when a child is ready, such as motor development |
| Cognition and personality are more subject to _. | variations in experience such as kinds of families children grow up in, schools they attend, people they encounter |
| _ experience can dig channels for development. | usual or typical |
| the portion of phenotypic variation that results from the reactions of genetically different individuals to similar environmental conditions | genotypic environment interaction |
| Give an example of genotype environment interaction. | many people are exposed to pollen and dust that people with a genetic predisposition are more likely to develop allergic reactions |
| tendency of certain genetic and environmental influences to reinforce each other | genotype environment correlation |
| _ may be passive, reactive (evocative) or active. | genotype environment correlation |
| What is genotype environment correlation also called? | genotype environment covariance |
| Genes influence a person's exposure to particular environments. The environment often _ genetic differences. | reinforces |
| What are three ways to strengthen the phenotypic expression of a genotypic tendency? | passive correlations, reactive correlations, active correlations |
| Parents who provide the genes that predispose a child toward a trait also tend to provide an environment that encourages the development of that trait | passive correlation |
| Define the correlation: the child has no control over it. | passive |
| children with differing genetic makeup evoke different reactions from adults | reactive correlation |
| Define the correlation: parents react to the child's genetic makeup. | reactive |
| as children get older and have more freedom to choose their own activities and environments, they actively seek or create experiences consistent with their genetic tendencies | active correlation |
| tendency of a person, especially after early childhood, to seek out environments compatible with his or her genotype | niche picking |
| the unique environment in which each child grows up consisting of distinctive influences or influences that affect one child differently than another | non-shared environmental effects |
| According to behavioral geneticists what accounts for most of the similarity between siblings? | Heredity |
| According to behavioral geneticists what accounts for most of the differences between siblings? | non-shared environment |
| _ may play an important role in the non-shared environment. | genotype environment correlations |
| What may influence how children perceive and respond to treatment and what its outcome will be? | genes |
| Can genes influence lifespan? | yes |
| extreme overweight in relation to age, sex, height and body type | obesity |
| Is obesity a multifactorial condition? | yes |
| What percentage of the risk of obesity is genetic and what percent is environmental influence attributed to? | 40 to 70% |
| _ exerts a strong influence on general intelligence including specific abilities such as memory, verbal ability, and spatial ability. | Heredity |
| What can intelligence depend upon? | Brain size, brain structure, genetic control, experience |
| (Environmental influence or Heritability) is greater and (environmental influence or heritability) is lower among poor families than economically privileged families. | Environmental influence, heritability |
| What is primarily responsible for the stability of cognitive performance? Does it increase with age? | Genetic influence, yes |
| What age group does shared family environments seem to have a dominant influence on? | Young children |
| What age group does shared family environment not have an influence on? | Adolescences |
| _ environment is influential throughout life and is primarily responsible for changes in cognitive performance. | Non-shared environment |
| characteristic disposition or style of approaching and reacting to situations | temperament |
| What is largely inborn and is often consistent over the years? | Temperament |
| mental disorder marked by loss of contact with reality; symptoms include hallucinations and delusions | schizophrenia |
| What are some mental disorders that show a strong hereditary influence? | Schizophrenia, autism, alcoholism, depression |
| Can heredity alone produce mental disorders? Why? | No, can be triggered by environmental factors |
| What can cause schizophrenia? | Lack of reelin, neurological insults in fetal life, exposure to influenza, maternal rubella, respiratory infections in second or third trimester, obstetric complications, poor or severely deprived as result of a war or famine, advanced paternal age |
| period of development between conception and birth | gestation |
| What are the three stages of prenatal development? | Germinal, embryonic, fetal |
| What two stages occur during gestation? | Embryo, fetus |
| Development proceeds according to what two fundamental principles? | Growth and motor development occur from top down and from center of the body outward |
| age of an unborn baby usually dated from the first day of an expectant mothers last menstrual cycle | gestational age |
| first two weeks of prenatal development characterized by rapid cell division, blastocyst formation, and implantation in the wall of the uterus | germinal stage |
| What month of prenatal development: growth is more rapid than any other time during prenatal or postnatal life, embryo reaches 10,000 times greater size, blood flows, umbilical cord forms, miniscule heart | one month |
| What month of prenatal development: embryo becomes a fetus, facial parts are clearly developed, arms, legs, thin covering of skin, bone cells appear, stomach produces digestive juices, react to tactile stimulation | two months |
| What month of prenatal development: fingernails, toenails, eyelids, vocal cords, lips, prominent nose, sex can be detected, organ systems functioning, swallow amniotic fluid, ribs and vertebrae turned to cartilage, mouth can open, close, swallow | three months |
| What month of prenatal development: body is catching up to the head, umbilical cord as long as fetus, placenta fully developed, fetus kicking, reflexive activities brisker | four months |
| What month of prenatal development: individual personality, sleep wake patterns, favorite position, more active, heartbeat, respiratory system not adequate to sustain life outside world, baby born not usually survive, hair growing | five months |
| What month of prenatal development: fat pads under the skin, eyes complete and moving, can hear, just with strong grip, if born only has slight chance of survival, breathing apparatus not matured | six months |
| What month of prenatal development: fully developed reflex pattern, cries, breathe, swallows, head hair ma continue to grow, if born chances of survival are fairly good with intensive care | seven months |
| What month of prenatal development: quarters are becoming cramped, movements are curtailed, layer of fat is developing over fetus’s body | eight months |
| What month of prenatal development: fetus stops growing, fat pads continue to form, organ systems operating, heart rate increases, more waste expelled through umbilical cord, reddish color of skin fading | nine months |
| What is the rapid period of cell division and duplication called that occurs within 36 hours of fertilization? | Mitosis |
| How many cells make up the human body? | 800 billion |
| As the fertilized ovum is dividing, where is it traveling? | Through the fallopian tube to the uterus |
| a fluid filled spear which flows freely in the uterus until the sixth day after fertilization | blastocyst |
| What percent of fertilized ova complete the task of implantation and continue to develop? | 10 to 20% |
| Some cells around the edge of the blastocyst cluster on one site to form the _. | Embryonic disc |
| a thickened cell mass from which the embryo begins to develops | embryonic disc |
| The embryonic disc will differentiate into what three layers? | Ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm |
| the upper layer of the embryonic disc | ectoderm |
| What does the ectoderm include? | the outer layer of skin, nails, hair, teeth, sensory organs, and nervous system including the brain |
| What does the endoderm include? | the lower layer of the embryonic disc, will become the digestive system, liver, pancreas, salivary glands, respiratory system |
| the lower layer of the embryonic disc | endoderm |
| the middle layer of the embryonic disc | mesoderm |
| What does the mesoderm include? | the middle layer of the embryonic disc, will develop and differentiate into the inner layer of skin, muscles, skeleton and excretory and circulatory systems |
| What connects the embryo to the mother while in the uterus? | Umbilical cord |
| What are the parts of the blastocyst cluster? | Embryonic disc, amniotic sac, placenta, umbilical cord |
| fluid filled membrane that encases the developing embryo, protecting and giving it room to move and grow | amniotic sac |
| allows oxygen, nourishment, ways to pass between the mother and embryo | placenta |
| helps to combat an internal infection and gives the unborn child immunity to various diseases | placenta |
| second stage of gestation (2 to 8 weeks), characterized by rapid growth and development of major body systems and organs | embryonic stage |
| What is the critical period, when the embryo is most vulnerable to destructive influences in the prenatal environment? | Embryonic stage |
| natural expulsion from the uterus of an embryo that cannot survive outside the womb | spontaneous abortion |
| What is another name for spontaneous abortion? | Miscarriage |
| the first three-month period of pregnancy | first trimester |
| What amount of miscarriages occur during the first trimester? | 3 out of 4 |
| dead at or after the 20th week of gestation | stillborn |
| final stage of gestation (from eight weeks to birth), characterized by increased differentiation of body parts and greatly enlarged body size | fetal stage |
| During the fetal stage, the fetus grows to _ times its previous length. Organs and body systems become more _. | 20, complex |
| Can fetuses feel pain? When can I start to feel pain? | Yes but unlikely before the third trimester |
| prenatal medical procedure using high-frequency sound waves to detect the outline of a fetus and its movements, so as to determine whether a pregnancy is progressing normally | ultrasound |
| Which gender a fetus is more active and moves more vigorously? | Male |
| In a fetus, what can stimulate the budding senses of taste and smell and may contribute to the development of organs needed for breathing and digestion? | Partaking of amniotic fluid |
| What suggests that fetuses can hear and feel? | They respond to the mother's voice, heartbeat, vibrations of her body |
| Familiarity with the mother's voice may have been evolutionary survival function, what might that be? | Help newborns locate the source of food |
| When do fetuses start to respond to sound and vibration? | about 26 weeks |
| When does a fetus's response to sound and vibration plot though? | about 36 weeks |
| can fetuses learn and remember before birth? | Yes |
| capable of causing birth defects | teratogenic |
| What is a normal amount of weight for a woman to gain during pregnancy? | 14 to 40 pounds |
| What can make a difference with teratogenic factors? | timing of exposure, the dose, duration, interaction |
| During pregnancy can gaining too little or too much weight be risky? | Both can be risky |
| What is a risk of gaining too much weight during pregnancy? | Baby needs to be delivered by cesarean section, more birth defects, complications of pregnancy, miscarriage, difficulty inducing labor |
| What is a risk of gaining too little weight during pregnancy? | Baby can suffer growth retardation, be born prematurely, die at or near birth |
| What environmental influences can affect a fetus? | Mother's weight, what mother eats, nutrition, drug intake, maternal illness, maternal anxiety, stress, maternal age, outside environmental hazards |
| What long-range effects can prenatal malnutrition have? | Die early in adulthood, osteoporosis, fetal under nutrition, schizophrenia |
| What affect can medical drugs have on a fetus? | birth defects when taken in first trimester |
| What medication can be taken by a pregnant or breast-feeding woman? | None unless it is essential for mother's or child's health |
| What affect can alcohol have on a fetus? | Mental retardation, disturbed infants neurological/behavioral functioning, emotional development, reduced skull and brain growth, reduced responsiveness just stimuli, slow reaction time, reduced visual activity |
| What effects can alcohol have on an infant or child? | Short attention span, distractibility, restlessness, hyperactivity, learning disabilities, memory deficits, mood disorders, aggressiveness, problem behavior |
| combination of mental, motor, and developmental abnormalities affecting the offspring of some women who have drink heavily during pregnancy | fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) |
| If a child is affected with fetal alcohol syndrome, what are ways to make them less likely to develop behavioral and mental health problems? | Diagnosed early, reared and stable nurturing environments |
| When should a woman start avoiding alcohol and can she resumed drinking? | when she begins thinking about becoming pregnant and until she stops breast-feeding |
| What affect can nicotine have on a fetus? | Low birth weight, miscarriage, growth retardation, stillbirth, small head circumference, sudden infant death, colic, hyperkinetic disorder, long-term respiratory problems, neurological/cognitive/behavioral problems |
| When can the effects of prenatal exposure to secondhand smoke be worse? | When the child also experiences economic hardships, substandard housing, malnutrition, and adequate clothing |
| Is caffeine considered a teratogenic? | No |
| When women consumed 2 cups of coffee during prenatal development, what risk did they have? | Twice the risk of miscarriage |
| When women consumed 4 cups of coffee during prenatal development, what risk did they have? | sudden death in infancy |
| What affect can marijuana have on a fetus? | Birth defects, low birth weight, withdrawal symptoms, increase risk of attention disorders, learning problems, impaired attention, impulsivity, difficulty in use of visual and perceptual skills |
| What affect can cocaine have on a fetus? | Spontaneous abortion, delayed growth, premature labor, low birth weight, small head size, birth defects, impaired neurological development, acute withdrawal symptoms, sleep disturbances, childhood behavior problems |
| One study found and no specific connection between prenatal cocaine exposure and _. | Physical, motor, cognitive, emotional, behavioral deficits |
| What affect can methamphetamines have on a fetus? | Low birth weight, small for gestational age, fetal growth restriction |
| viral disease that undermines effective functioning of the immune system | Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) |
| What illnesses and infections should perspective parents try to prevent? | All interaction's including common cold, flu, urinary tract infection, STDs |
| virus crosses over to the fetuses bloodstream through the placenta during pregnancy, labor, delivery, or after birth through breast milk | perinatal transmission |
| What affect can rubella have on a fetus? | Deafness, heart defects |
| What symptoms does toxoplasmosis (a parasite from animals) have? | No symptoms or common cold symptoms |
| What affect can toxoplasmosis have on a fetus? | Fetal brain damage, severely impaired eyesight or blindness, seizures, miscarriage, stillbirth, death of the baby, eye infections, hearing loss, learning disabilities |
| What affect can diabetes have on a fetus? | Birth defects, especially of the heart and spinal cord |
| Some tension and stress during pregnancy are _ and do not _ risk of birth complications. | Some, increase |
| physical or psychological demands on a person or organism | stress |
| Unusual maternal stress may _ affect the offspring. | Negatively |
| What are some effects of an abnormal amount of stress on the mother? | cleft lip, cleft palate, heart malformations, autism by deforming the developing brain |
| What affect can delayed childbearing have on a fetus? | Miscarriage, stillbirth, premature delivery, retarded fetal growth, birth defects, chromosome all abnormality |
| What affect can adolescent childbearing have on a fetus? | Premature or underweight babies, heightened risk of death in first month, disabilities, health problems |
| What outside environmental hazards can affect prenatal development? | Air pollution, chemicals, radiation, extremes of heat and humidity, other environmental hazards |
| What affect can outside environmental hazards have on a fetus? | Premature, undersized abnormality, chromosomal abnormality, low birth weight, slowed fetal growth, asthma, allergies, autoimmune disorders, cancer, IQ deficit |
| What affect can dental x-rays have on a fetus? | Mental retardation, small head size, chromosomal malformations, down syndrome, seizures, poor performance on IQ test/in school |
| What can cause a man's sperm to be abnormal or poor quality? | Marijuana or tobacco smoke, alcohol, radiation, DES, pesticides, high ozone levels, occupation |
| What affect can a man's sperm have on a fetus? | Low birth weight, slowed fetal growth |
| What affect can a pregnant woman's exposure to her father secondhand smoke have on a fetus? | Low birth weight, infant respiratory infections, sudden infant death, cancer and childhood and adulthood |
| What affect can an older father’s sperm have on a fetus? Why? | Dwarfism, schizophrenia, autism due to damaged or deteriorated sperm |
| What affect can a younger father’s sperm have on a fetus? | Premature birth, low birth weight, small for just a show age |
| Are scientists able to detect an unborn baby's progress and well-being? | Yes |
| Are scientists able to intervene and correct some abnormal conditions in a fetus? | Yes |
| Why is early prenatal care important? | Screaming for defects and diseases, can prevent maternal or infant death, other birth complications, information about pregnancy, childbirth, infant care |
| Why do rates of low birth weight and premature birth continued to rise? | Increasing number of multiple births, benefits of prenatal care are not evenly distributed |
| Why is preconception care needed? | Physical examinations, vaccinations, risk screening, counseling women on proper steps to take |
| How does conception normally occur? | fertilization- union of sperm and ovum, form a one celled zygote, duplicated by cell division |
| What causes multiple births? | fertilization of two ova (or one ovum that splits) or splitting of one fertilized ovum, more than two can result from either or both |
| Which twins have different genetic makeup? | dizygotic (fraternal) |
| Which twins have the same genetic makeup? | monozygotic (maternal) |
| How can monozygotic twins be different? | temperament, etc. |
| How does heredity operate in determining sex? | mother's ovum carries a X chromosome, father's sperm carries X or Y chromosome |
| How does heredity operate in transmitting normal and abnormal traits? | different sequences on the DNA cause normal or abnormal traits |
| What are the basic functional units of heredity? | genes |
| What are genes made of? | DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) |
| What does DNA do? | carries the biochemical instructions that governs the development of cell functions |
| Why is each gene located in a specific place on a chromosome? | located according to function |
| What is the complete sequence of genes in the human body called? | human genome |
| How many chromosomes are received at conception? | 23 from the mother, 23 from the father, total of 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs |
| How many pairs of chromosomes are autosomes? | 22 pairs |
| How many pairs of chromosomes are sex chromosomes? | 1 pair |
| XX would produce what gender child? | female |
| XY would produce what gender child? | male |
| What are the simplest patterns of genetic transmission? | dominant inheritance, recessive inheritance |
| Homozygous or Heterozygous trait: a pair of alleles are the same. | homozygous |
| Homozygous or Heterozygous trait: a pair of alleles are different | heterozygous |
| Most normal human characteristics are the result of _. | multifactorial transmission |
| Does each child inherit a unique genotype? | most, but not monozygous twins |
| Does a person's phenotype always express the underlying genotype? Why? | no, dominant inheritance and multifactorial transmission |
| _ controls the functions of particular genes. | epigenetic framework |
| How can the epigenetic framework be affected? | by environmental factors |
| What can birth defects and diseases be a result of? | dominant, recessive or sex-linked inheritance, mutations, genome imprinting, chromosomal abnormalities |
| What can genetic counseling do? | give prospective parents information about the mathematical odds of bearing children with birth defects |
| Does genetic testing involve risks or benefits? | both |
| How do scientists study the relative influences of heredity and environment? | behavioral genetics, family/adoption/twin studies |
| How do heredity and environment work together? | reaction range, canalization, genotype-environment correlation, niche-picking |
| Research in behavioral genetics in based on what assumption? | that relative influences of heredity and environment can be measured statistically |
| How can researchers measure the hereditability of a specific trait? | family studies, adoption studies, twin studies |
| If _ is an important influence on a trait, then genetically closer people will be more _ in that trait. | heredity, similar |
| Siblings tend to be more _ than _ in intelligence and personality. | different, alike |
| What roles do heredity and environment play in physical health, intelligence and personality? | obesity |
| What can be influenced by both heredity and environment? | obesity, longevity, intelligence, temperament, other aspects of personality |
| _ is a highly heritable neurological disorder that can be environmentally influenced. | Schizophrenia |
| What are the three stages of prenatal development? | germinal, embryonic, fetal |
| What happens during germinal development? | first two weeks of prenatal development, characterized by rapid cell division, blastocyst formation, implantation in the wall of the uterus |
| What happens during embryonic development? | second stage of gestation, 2-8 weeks, characterized by rapid growth and development of major body systems and organs |
| What happens during fetal development? | final stage of gestation, 8 weeks to birth, characterized by increased differentiation of body parts and greatly enlarged body size |
| What can happen to severely defective embryos during the first trimester? | spontaneous abortion |
| As fetuses grow, what happens to their movement? | move less but more vigorously |
| What might stimulate the taste and smell to a fetus? | swallowing amniotic fluid |
| What can fetuses start to mentally do before birth? | hear, exercise sensory discrimination, learn, remember |
| What environmental influences can affect prenatal development? | nutrition, smoking, alcohol, drugs, transmission of maternal illness or infection, stress, age, external environmental hazards, chemicals, radiation |
| Can a developing organism be greatly affected by its prenatal environment? | yes |
| Can external influences affect the father’s sperm? | yes |
| What can depend on the likelihood of a birth defect with environmental factors? | timing and intensity of environmental event and interaction with genetic factors |
| What techniques can assess a fetus is health? | ultrasound, sonoembryology amniocentesis, chorionic villus sampling, fetoscopy, preimplantation genetic diagnosis, umbilical cord sampling, maternal blood test |
| Why is prenatal care important? | can lead to detection of defects and disorders, reduce maternal and infant death, low birth weight, other birth complications |
| What could preconception care for every woman of childbearing age do? | increase chances of good pregnancy outcomes |
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