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Personality
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Personality | You need some characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and behaving that is consistent across situations |
| Two main ways to study personality | Nomoethic approach- focuses on finding universal laws that apply to all people to identify the aspects of personality that everyone has. Idiographic approach- focuses on studying the unique aspects of that single individual |
| Backdrop of a Freud's intellectual world | Darwin- man is not special and can be studied like any other part of the natural order. Helmholtz - law of the conservation of energy. Bruke- all living organisms are energy systems. Freud combined all this and said that the human personality is energy sy |
| Freud's 2 main drives | Eros (life instinct)- covers all the self-preserving and erotic instincts, libido most important. Thanatos (death instinct)- covers all the instincts to towards aggression, self-destruction, and cruelty |
| Freud's tripartite theoretical model | Id, super-ego, and ego |
| Id | Raw animal drives of the personality that are driven by libido, the psychic energy of the mind. the Id operates on the pleasure principle, meaning that it is a driven solely to maximize pleasure = "if it feels good, do it" |
| Ego | Its role is to restrain the drives of the Id in order to maintain relationships and integrate into society. the ego operates on the reality principle, which is to balance the ID's drives with the realities of social life |
| Super-ego | All of the messages from parents, teachers, and others about who we should be. It represents the ideal person who is her perfectly moral and virtuous, but we can never reach that. Super-ego pushes us to try, failure may cause guilt, shame... |
| Methods to investigate consciousness | Dream interpretation. Free association- practice in which a person was encouraged to speak without restraint. Parapraxis/Freudian slip- slip of the tongue of can reveal aspects of the unconsciousness |
| When the Id and superego can't reconcile | To protect itself the organism employees defense mechanisms or has a psycho break. |
| Freud's three main types of anxiety | Reality anxiety- came from objective dangers in the environment, neurotic anxiety- related to fears of losing control over the Id, moral anxiety- came from fears of past or future or immoral behavior --> to cope with anxiety we develop defense mechanisms |
| Defense mechanisms | Unconscious strategies for managing and reducing anxiety |
| Repression | Process of burying anxiety away in the unconscious = "out of sight, out of mind" |
| Regression | Reverting to a previous stage of development, presumably one in which a person felt comfortable and didn't experience anxiety. Ex: anxiety causes an adult to thumb suck |
| Reaction Formation | Behaving in the opposite manner of the behavior causing anxiety. Ex: strongly homophobic individuals condemn the feelings and speak out and hatred of homosexuality |
| Rationalization | Involves creating a logical excuse for one's behavior which ignores the true enterline explanation, ex: "I smoke to help socialize", rather than "I smoke because of an unconscious oral fixation" |
| Intellectualization - | involves focusing on academic analysis hand study of an area relevant to the person's anxiety, ex: after being cut from the basketball team, Joe obsesses over studying the game strategies |
| Displacement | refers to redirecting anxiety away from the real threat and onto a less threatening object or situation. Ex: bad day at work --> yell at child |
| Denial | Unconscious refusal to admit to the reality of a situation causing anxiety, ex: spouse overlooks evidence of an affair |
| Projection | Refers to projecting one's own fears and anxieties on to other people. Ex: insisting that a classmate that you hate, hates you |
| Sublimination | Refers to a redirection of sexual or aggressive energies onto pursuits which are more socially acceptable, ex: instead of getting into a fistfight, writer creates violent characters |
| Psychosexual stages of development (OAPLG) | Oral (0-18mo)- sucking, fixation: gullible or cynical. Anal (18mo-3)-defecation, fixation: self destruction vs anal retentive. Phallic (3-5)- genitals, fixation: egotism or low self-esteem. Latency (5/6)- puberty and all suppressed. Genital (puberty)- rep |
| Oedipus complex | Boy develops sexual desire for mother and also begins to identify with his father. boy harbors unconscious wishes to murder his father. boy worries that father will seedesires and castrate him (castration anxiety). Instead, boy learns to identify like Dad |
| The negative outcome of Oedipus complex | can identify this with the mother so much that the father becomes the focus of his libidinal interest. The boy exhibits girl like behavior. Develops jealousy or even hostility toward mother |
| Electra complex | Girl notices that she lacks a penis and develops penis envy. She experiences a latent sexual desire for her father and they wish to kill her mother, who's she blamed for her apparent castration. Freud believed that girl's overcome their anxiety and penis |
| Carl Jung | A Swiss psychiatrist who founded analytical psychology. He shared for its emphasis on the unconscious processes: personal and collective unconsciousness. Cont. |
| Jung's view on unconsciousness | Personal unconscious- the part of the unconscious minds containing an individual's repressed thoughts and feelings. Collective unconscious- the part of the unconscious that is inherited in common to all members of a species |
| Archetypes and examples | Def:archetypes represent universal patterns and images that are part of the collective unconscious. Ex: persona- our public self, anima- female archetype as expressed in male personality, animus- male archetype as expressed in female personality |
| Attitude types | Extroverts - focus on external world and social life. Introverts- focus on internal thoughts and feelings. Jung felt that everyone had both qualities, but one is usually dominant |
| Personality types | Rational individuals- people who regulate their actions through thinking and feeling. Irrational individuals- people who base their actions on perceptions, either through their senses or intuition |
| Alfred Adler | he believed Freud overly focused on sexual and aggressive drives and there was no conflict between the ID and superego. early social interactions influence the development of the inferiority complex or a strive for superiority. father of humanistic psych |
| Karen horney | Found Freud's approach male-centric. she suggested that males experience womb envy which drives them to compensate by dominating and disparaging women. |
| Neurotic trends (horney) | Rational strategies for coping with emotional problems and dust minimizing anxiety: submission- moving toward ppl, agression- moving against ppl, detachment- moving away from ppl |
| Erik Erikson | 8 stages of personality development: trust vs. Mistrust, autonomy versus shame and doubt, initiative versus guilt, and just industry vs. Inferiority, identity vs. Role confusion, intimacy vs isolation, generativity vs. Stagnation, integrity vs. Despair |
| Evaluating old psychodynamic theories | 1)culture bound ideas - Freud made no connection between women's subordinate status in society and their sense of inferiority. 2) psychodynamic theories are largely untestable and in any scientific way. 3) most concepts arise out of clinical practice |
| Evaluating the modern psychoanalytic perspective (Life, Peer, Identity, Dreams, Slips, PTSD = LPIDSP) | personality develops throughout life and does not fixed in childhood. Freud underemphasized peer influence on the individual. Gender identity may developed before 5-6 yrs. There may be other reasons for dreams besides wish-fulfillment. |
| Evaluating the modern psychoanalytic perspective | Verbal slips could be explained on the basis of cognitive processing of verbal choices. Unlike Freud's theory most PTSD patients are unable to repress painful experiences into their unconscious |
| Assessing personality | How can we measure the differences between people? How can we use these differences to predict behavior? |
| Projective techniques | attempts to tap into person's characteristic ways of interpreting or assessing ambiguous stimuli. These types of assessments are idiographic. Includes Rorschach Inkblot Test and the TAT |
| Rorschach Inkblot Test | Created ambiguous stimuli which were open to interpretations --> psychiatrist can uncover unconscious influences and elements of a patient's mind |
| Thematic apperception Test/TAT | Focused on having participants explain ambiguous situations --> situations and relationships described could reveal motives, concerns, and characteristic way of viewing the social world |
| Problems with projective techniques | Do stated views reveal how a person is or how they want to be seen? Do respondents create bizarre narratives because those come to mind easily? Can similar answers be given for different underlying reasons? Examiner bias? |
| Trait based assessment | these assessments choose particular traits which are relevant for understanding personality then questions are asked to assess those particular traits. They tend to be nomothetic. Often relies on self reports- ppl answer questions abt themselves. |
| Problems with self-reports | Hard time collecting information for traits with negative connotations. Face validity- if a test covers the basic concept. |
| Implicit assessment | Attempts to assess citrate in an indirect way that is difficult for the participant to conceal |
| Humanistic perspective on personality | Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers |
| Self-actualizing person (maslow) | Maslow proposed that we as individuals are motivated by a hierarchy of needs. Beginning with physiological needs, we try to reach the state of self-actualization= fulfilling our potential |
| Self-actualization and the Jonah complex | Maslow estimated only 1% of the population reaches this. Jonah complex- must be willing to sacrifice safety for personal growth |
| Perceived self vs ideal self | Perceive - description of yourself. Ideal - how you would like to be. from a humanistic perspective, a self-actualized person finds the perceived self as completely congruent with the ideal self. |
| Humanistic personality theories | Humanistic view asserts the fundamental goodness of people and their constant striving toward higher levels of functioning. Does not dwell on past experiences but rather focus is on the present and future |
| Carl Rogers | actualizing tendency- goal of every organism is to fill the capabilities of our genetic blueprint. Self concepts- human beings form images of themselves. Self actualizing tendency- drive to fulfill self concepts |
| Rogers form of assessing personality | Rogers ask people to describe themselves as they would like to be and does they actually are. If the two descriptions were close the individual is a fully functioning person |
| How to become fully functioning | Unconditional positive reward- full acceptance and love of another regardless of our behavior. Conditional positive reward- acceptance and love contingent on certain behaviors and fulfilling certain conditions |
| Evaluating the humanistic perspective (Childhood, Vague, Optimistic, Self- centeredness= CVOS) | Humanistic psych has large impact on education and childhood. concepts in humanistic psych are vague, subjective and lack of scientific basis. these theories as overly optimistic and that they ignore the nature of human evil. Self centeredness |
| Cognitive-social learning theories in personality | Bandura- we each have a set of personal standards that grew out of our own life history and that shape our behavior. Behavior is seen as the interaction of cognition, learning, and the current environment |
| Cognitive-social expectancies | What a person expects from a situation or from their own behavior. expectancies are formed from personal preferences / past experiences |
| Performance standards | Expectancies form performance standards. This leads people to conduct themselves according to performance standards- individually determined standards of excellence by which we judge our behavior |
| Self-efficacy | After meeting your own performance standards, the expectancy is that your efforts will be successful |
| Locus of control | Rotter- a common expectancy by which people view a situation. Internal locus of control- they can control their own fate. External locus of control- they did not believe they control their own fate --> learned helplessness |
| Forer/Barnum Effect | tendency to highly rate the accuracy of descriptions of our personality that supposedly are tailored specifically to us. |
| Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI) | Frequently used self-report. inventory list several hundred statements about self. Uses technique called criterion keying- this test is given to groups of ppl who are known to differ in some way, the responses are analyzed to show how these group differ i |
| Three types of traits that are assessed | Allport-identied too many words to represent traits. Cardinal dispositions -characterized just about everything a person did + revealed most about personality, Central traits - influenced many thoughts or behaviors, secondary traits- influenced only a few |
| Authoritarianism | Trait focused on in 1940s to understand to the rise of fascism. Referred to a tendency for obedience to authority, conformity, and political convertism |
| Which traits should be considered most important | rather than proposing traits that might be important and then examining those,examine many traits and let statistics tell most important= factor analysis- collecting data for a number of items then calculating the correlations between each of those items |
| Raymond Cattell | Cattell used factor analysis to develop a 16 personality factor inventory --> 16PF assessment |
| Hans Eysenck | Personality can be summarized into two main dimensions: introversion/extraversion and neurotism. Ex: a person with a high level of neuroticism my Express this instability in the form of moodiness if introverted but as aggression if extroverted |
| Four main quadrants for traits (Eysenck and Galen) | Melancholic- high neuroticism/low extraversion, choleric- high neuroticism/high extraversion, sanguine- low neuroticism/high extraversion, phlegmatic- low neuroticism/low extraversion |
| The big five factors | Researchers today focus on 5 main traits because Eysenck's were too small and Cattell's too large so... OCEAN= openness / culture, conscientiousness, extraversion/introversion, agreeableness, neurotism/ emotional stability |
| Personality profile | How an individual's particular combination of traits interact with one another |
| Stability of the big five | They are quite stable in adulthood. However, they change over development |
| Heritability of the big five | 50% or so for each trait |
| Can the big five predict other personal attributes? | Yes. Conscientious people are morning type an extroverted are evening type |
| Experience sampling | Technique which causes participants to repeatedly measure actual behaviors and then comparing them to personal inventories. researchers can get a clear picture of how well assessments represent actual behavior tendencies. |
| Intrapersonal functioning | How a person processes information, makes decisions, and chooses behaviors. the trade based perspective can be accused of using circular logic to evade provide an explanation to how personality works |
| Biological perspective to personality | There may be underlying biological links to personality traits. further research has suggested of the existence of two opposing systems which may relate to sensation-seeking and emotional stability: BAS and BIS |
| Behavioral approach system (BAS) | A reward seeking system related to dopamine pathways and greater activity in left prefrontal cortex in responding to incentives and rewards |
| Behavioral inhibition system (BIS) | involving serotonin and gaba pathways and greater activity in the right prefrontal cortex. this system is more reactive to punishments and is related to anxiety, aversion, disgust and fear |
| The person-situation controversy | Mischel- traits are not predict good predictors of behavior. Trait theorists argue that behaviors from a situation may be different, but average behavior remains the same. Therefore, traits matter |
| Person variables | including competencies, and coding strategies, personal constructs, expectancies, values, and plans which all play a role in building personality |
| Self schema and self-serving bias | Self schema- Larger and more complex than most other schema. Self serving bias- free calling achievements and successes while forgetting failures, which may play an important role in the development of self schema |
| Existential psychology | How every person deals with existence. How we deal with existential crisis may create our personality |
| Terror management | The awareness of death which causes us to define the meaning of our lives. Generally done in the context of our social and cultural environment as we attempt to figure out our own values and how we fit into society |
| Wobegon effect/ illusory superiority | The tendency for most people to believe that they are above average. Relates to self-serving bias |
| Personal constructs | Kelly- ways we understand that the traits and behaviors of others |
| Reciprocal determinism | Bandura- a process in which personality could be understood through 3 factors which all influenced each other: biological disposition, behavior, and environment |
| Identity claims | Symbolic statement made by occupants to reinforce their self views. Personally symbolic. these can be for themselves or to let others know what they are like or would like to be like |
| Behavior residue | The physical traces of activities conducted in the environment (scattered charcoal from drawing) or traces of behavior conducted outside the environment (snowboard propped against the wall) |
| Momentary impressions | observer consensus is not equally strong for all trades judged by far, the strongest consensus was obtained for extra virgin, with conscientiousness and distant second, and the least consensus found for agreeableness |
| Hypothesis on momentary impressions | Physical spaces hold marcuse to an occupant level of organization, tidiness, values, and recreational pursuits. the availability of such cues should promote relatively strong consensus for observers judgments. |
| Process to momentary impressions | observers to notice the residue or evidence. Then observers Jennifer the behaviors have that created the physical evidence. Finally observers shouldn't for the traits that underlie the behaviors |
| Accuracy criteria | obtain self ratings from the occupants and peer ratings from the occupants close acquaintances. We obtained accuracy estimates by correlating The observers rating with the combined self and peer ratings |
| What the cues are correlated with |
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