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1st Semester
Masterbooks Intro to A&P Volume 1 & 2
Term | Definition |
---|---|
cells | the most basic structural and functional unit of a living organism, such as the human body |
anatomy | the study of the body's parts and how they are put together |
physiology | the study of how the parts of the body function |
organs | a group of tissue that has a particular function |
digestive system | all the parts that process your food - from your mouth and stomach to your liver and intestines |
nucleus | directs most of the action in the cell |
cell membrane | forms the cell's outer border |
cytoplasm | most of the cell's work gets done here |
erythrocytes | red blood cells; their main job is to carry oxygen |
plasma membrane | the envelope that contains the other components of the cell |
intracellular fluid | fluid inside the cells |
extracellular fluid | fluid that is outside the cells |
water soluble | something that can be dissolved in water |
lipid | another name for a fat |
hydrophilic | a word that literally means "water-loving" |
hydrophobic | a word that literally means "water-fearing" |
exocytosis | the process of releasing material from in side the cell |
cytosol | the liquid found inside the cell |
lysosomes | small vesicles containing enzymes that can digest many kinds of molecules and debris |
nucleus | the control center of the cell |
messenger RNA | copies of the protein-building instructions from the nucleus |
mitochondria | they generate and store energy |
metabolize | a controlled way of "burning" the fuel of the body |
cytoskeleton | composed of a network of tubes and filaments that run throughout the cell |
centrioles | responsible for helping form a complex of microtubules |
mitotic spindle | guides the cell's chromosomes during cell division |
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) | store the genetic instructions needed to make all the proteins in the body |
gene | each section of DNA that has the information for a particular protein |
enzymes | perform all the chemical reactions in your cells |
antibodies | fight infectious invaders in your body |
junk DNA | once thought to be merely left over from our evolutionary past, though they actually are quite active and serve many functions |
interphase | the part of the cell cycle when a cell is not actually splitting into two cells |
chromatid | duplicated chromosomes stuck together during interphase |
a pair of sister chromatids | a chromosome and its copy, stuck together |
mitosis | the part of the cell cycle that is directly involved when dividing the cell into two daughter cells |
tissue | a group of cells that perform similar or related functions |
epithelial tissue | lines your body cavities or covers surfaces |
glandular epithelium | this tissue forms the glands of the body |
myofilaments | muscle cells contain these structures that allow the cells to contract |
connective tissue | helps provide a framework for the body, and helps connect and support other organs in the body |
organ | a collection of various types of tissues that work together to perform a function |
programmed cell death | the process by which some cells are designed to self-destruct |
anterior | describes structures at the front of the body |
posterior | describes structures at the back of the body |
proximal | describes something that is closer to the middle of the body |
distal | describes something that is farther away from the middle of the body |
superior | describes something that is above something else |
inferior | describes something that is below something else |
medial | describes something that is closer to the midline, or center line, of the body |
lateral | describes something that is farther away from the midline, or center line, of the body |
homeostasis | the body has many mechanisms to help maintain a balance or "equilibrium" among its many systems |
irreducible complexity | many of the body's systems cannot work unless others are already in place and working properly |
skeletal system | bones and joints |
muscular system | muscles |
cardiovascular system | heart and blood vessels |
respiratory system | nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and lungs |
nervous system | brain, spinal cord, and nerves |
digestive system | mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, gall bladder, and pancreas |
urinary system | kidneys, ureters, and bladder |
reproductive system: male | testes, genital ducts, and prostate |
reproductive system: female | ovaries, uterus, fallopian tubes, and breasts |
integumentary system | skin, nails, and hair |
endocrine system | pituitary gland, hypothalamus, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, pancreas, adrenal glands, testes (male), and ovaries (female) |
lymphatic system | lymph nodes, lymph vessels, thymus, tonsils, and spleen |
bone marrow | helps to create red and white blood cells |
blood cells | help fight bacterial infections |
rib cage | a protective shield for the heart and lungs and provides a sturdy space into which your lungs expand |
hematopoiesis | most of our blood cells are formed by this process in the marrow cavities of the many bones of the body |
blood cells | they die rapidly, many living only for days or months, and need to be replaced |
long bones | bones that are longer than they are wide |
short bones | bones about as wide as they are long |
flat bones | thin bones either long or short, and usually curved |
sesamoid bones | bones that are small and round |
irregular bones | bones that cannot easily be placed in the other categories |
medullary | in the middle |
epiphysis | the rounded, broader end of a long bone (the joint end( |
periosteum | the outermost layer of bone, which is a thin, fibrous membrane |
compact bone | the is beneath the periosteum, and is a dense, thick layer |
spongy bone | the innermost part of the bone that is like a sponge or a honeycomb |
osteo | the Greek word for "bone" |
osteocyte | a mature bone cell |
osteoblast | an immature cell or a bone-building cell |
osteoclasts | break down bone |
osteon | the basic unit of compact bone |
circumferential lamellae | the outer layer of compact bone that is made up of very large rings of ground substance and osteocytes |
trabeculae | the struts observed in spongy bones |
epiphyseal plate | bones grow in this area |
chondrocytes | these cells are what makes cartilage |
human growth hormone (hGH) | helps regulate bone growth |
rickets | a bone disease in children that is the result of a deficiency of vitamin D |
calcitonin | a hormone released by the thyroid when calcium levels in the body get too high |
osteoporosis | a disease, primarily of the elderly, that results in bones that are very fragile |
arthritis | inflammation of one or more joints |
osteoarthritis | joint cartilage gradually deteriorates, resulting in pain, swelling, and restricted motion in the joints affected |
rheumatoid arthritis | a person's own immune system attacks the body's own tissues, often the joints of smaller bones |
fracture | a break in a bone |
hematoma | a mass of clotted blood |
callus | a cartilage-like layer of tissue that forms inside a fracture |
immobilize | keeping the broken pieces of bone from shifting |
arthroscope | a small telescope for looking into joints |
reduction | putting fractured bones into alignment |
axial skeleton | made up of the skull, vertebral column, and ribs |
vertebral column | protects the spinal cord |
appendicular skeleton | made up of the upper and lower limbs as well as the bones that connect them to the axial skeleton |
pectoral girdle | connects the arms to the axial skeleton |
pelvic girdle | connects the legs to the axial skeleton |
flexion | a movement that decreases the angle between two parts of the body |
extension | a movement that increases the angle between two parts of the body |
abduction | movement away from the midline of the body |
adduction | movement toward the midline of the body |
articulate | connected by a joint |
sutures | the joints that hold the cranial bones together |
hyoid bone | the only bone not connected to another bone located in the neck between the jawbone and the thyroid gland |
complete fracture | one where the bone breaks into two or more separate pieces |
incomplete fracture | one in which the bone is cracked but not broken all the way through |
simple fracture | one in which the bone is broken but does not break through the skin |
compound fracture | one in which the fractured bone breaks through the skin |
contract | when muscles do this, they get smaller or shorter |
contractility | means muscle tissues can contract with great force |
elasticity | means that when a muscle is stretched, it has the ability to return to its resting length |
excitability | means that muscle can respond to a stimulus or trigger |
extensibility | means that muscle can be stretched |
skeletal muscle | known as voluntary muscle, contracts on your command, is striated |
muscle fiber | also known as a muscle cell; can be very long, often extending the entire length of the muscle |
myofilaments | can be made of myosin molecules or actin molecules |
aerobic respiration | the process where glucose (sugar) is broken down with oxygen being present |
anaerobic respiration | the process where glucose (sugar) is broken down without oxygen being present |
lactic acid | diffuses out of the muscle cells and into the blood to be diposed of |
anabolic steroids | synthetic male hormones taken to enhance muscle growth and performance |
muscle tone | refers to the fact that there is some tension in a muscle even when it is not being actively contracted |
muscle atrophy | muscles that have not been used regularly for weeks get smaller |
rigor mortis | occurs after death because the muscles all over the body contract and are unable to relax |
sarcomere | the simplest contractile unit of a muscle |
thick myofilaments | these are made of myosin |
thin myofilaments | these are made of actin |
mitochondria | they convert fuel, like sugars, into usable energy |
antagonistic | muscles that work opposite each other |
intercostal muscles | located between the ribs |
orbicularis oculi muscle | encircles each eye; helps us to blink, wink, and squint |
deltoid muscle | the round muscle over the cap of the shoulder |
rotator cuff | the name for the four muscles that hold the humerus in the shoulder joint |
trapezius | the triangular-shaped muscle in the upper back, helping connect the pectoral girdle to the thorax |
pectoralis major muscle | the primary muscle of the chest |
rectus abdominis | this long muscle on the front wall of the abdomen helps keep the pelvis stable as we walk |
anterior | means "in the front" |
posterior | means "in the back" |
occipitofrontalis | the main muscle across our forehead; elevates the eyebrows |
orbicularis oris | helps you close your mouth |
mentalis muscle | on the front of the lower jaw; helps wrinkle the chin |
buccinator | compresses the cheek and helps keep food in place as we chew |
gluteus maximus | biggest muscle in the body |
heart | hardest working muscle in the body |
achilles | strongest tendon in the body |
hamstring | muscle at the rear of the thigh |
supra | means "above" |
infra | means "below" |
pericardium | this sac goes around the heart |
epicardium | made mostly of connective tissue and provides a protective covering for the surface of the heart |
desmosome | helps hold the muscle fibers together as they contract |
pulmonary circulation | the right-sided circulation |
systemic circulation | the left-sided circulation |
artery | vessel that carries blood away from the heart |
vein | vessel that carries blood toward the heart |
atria | collects blood as it returns to the heart |
pulmonary veins | veins that bring blood from the lungs to the left atrium |
vena cavae | the veins that bring blood back from the brain and the body |
tricuspid valve | blood passes from the right atrium into the right ventricle through this |
bicuspid valve | blood passes from the left atrium into the left ventricle through this |
mitral | used for the bicuspid valve because the two cusps look a little like a bishop's headdress, called a miter |
chordae tendineae | the ties that bind the cusps to the ventricular walls; this Latin name means "heart strings: |
semilunar valves | the valves guarding the exit from the ventricles |
pulmonary valve | the semilunar valve between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery |
cardiac cycle | the name given to the five steps involved in filling the heart's chambers and pumping the blood |
atrial systole | after the passive filling of the ventricles, when the atria simultaneously contract |
edema | swelling caused by fluid accumulating in tissues |
pulmonary edema | fluid in the lungs |
interventricular septum | muscular wall between the ventricles |
myocardial infarction | commonly known as a "heart attack" |
myocardial ischemia | the situation where adequate oxygen is not delivered to the heart muscle |
coronary heart disease | a type of cardiovascular disease, a term that includes heart attacks and strokes and other diseases of the heart and blood vessels |
autorhythmic cells | these repeatedly produce electrical signals that stimulate the heart to contract |
cardiac conduction system | Also known as instrinsic conduction system; has two "nodes" that set the pace of the heartbeat |
SA node | a small group of cells located in the upper portion of the right atrium's wall, near the entrance of the superior vena cava; the heart's main pacemaker |
Purkinje fibers | deliver the electric signals to their final destination; vital for maintaining the heart's smooth, coordinated pumping action |
electrocardiogram | the recording that is produced from the electrical impulses transmitted through the heart |
cardiac output | the amount of blood pumped by the heart in one minute |
stroke volume | the amount of blood pumped with each heartbeat |
echocardiogram | an ultrasound of the heart |
diastolic volume | the amount of blood in the ventricle when it is full |
end systolic volume | the amount of blood left in the ventricle after it contracts |
vascular system | a collection of tubes that carry blood away from the heart and then back again |
arteries | take blood away from the heart |
veins | carry blood back to the heart |
capillaries | connect the arteries and veins |
arterioles | the smallest arteries; they lead to the capillaries |
venules | the smallest veins; carry blood from the capillaries to the larger veins |
endothelium | lines all the blood vessels and the heart itself |
scurvy | a severe vitamin C deficiency |
elastic arteries | the arteries that are closest to the heart |
adrenaline | also called epinephrine; increases heart rate |
vasoconstriction | this is when the smooth muscle contracts and the lumen constricts |
abdominal aorta | the portion of the aorta below the diaphragm |
upper respiratory system | consists of nose, nasal cavity, sinuses, pharynx, larynx |
lower respiratory system | contains the trachea, tubes of the bronchial tree, lungs |
external nares | two openings on the nose (nostrils) |
bacteriophages | bacteria-eating viruses |
nasal conchae | stick out from the sides of the nasal cavity (turbinates) |
sinuses | air-filled spaces in the skull surrounding the nasal cavity |
pharynx | commonly called the throat |
nasopharynx | superior (upper) portion of the pharynx |
Eustachian tubes | these drain any excess mucus or other fluid that might collect in the middle ear |
larynx | commonly called the voice box |
thyroid cartilage | commonly called the "Adam's apple" |
trachea | commonly called the windpipe |
internal respiration | gas exchange between capillaries and the cells and tissues of the body |
cellular respiration | process by which cells obtain energy from nutrients like glucose |
asthma | chronic inflammatory disease of the airways |
hilum | where the bronchi & blood vessels enter the lungs |
alveoli | tiny sacs that pouch out from the walls of respiratory bronchioles & alveolar ducts |
surfactant | a special kind of molecule that has some detergent-like properties |
pneumonia | an inflammatory condition of the lungs, primarily affecting the air sacs |
pleura | each lung is enclosed by this double-layered membrane |
pleurisy | occurs when the pleural membranes become inflamed |
inspiration | the first phase of breathing when air is taken into the lungs |
expiration | the second phase of breathing when air flows back out of the lungs |
diaphragm | the large, dome-shaped muscle located below the lungs |
tidal volume | the amount of air in one breath |
inspiratory reserve volume | the amount of air taken in beyond the normal tidal volume |
vital capacity | the maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after a maximum inspiration |
hemoglobin | protein in the blood that carries oxygen efficiently |
erythrocytes | red blood cells in the blood & contain hemoglobin |
oxyhemoglobin | when hemoglobin is bound to one or more oxygen molecules |
carbon monoxide | a colorless, odorless gas that consists of one carbon atom & one oxygen atom |
carbaminohemoglobin | when hemoglobin is carrying carbon dioxide |
bronchial arteries | supply oxygenated blood & nutrients to the lung tissue |
ventilation | gets air into the lungs; just means "breathing" |
accessory muscles | used when a deeper or more forceful breath is required |