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251 Mind & Brain
Chapter 3
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| "The electrical signals by which neurons communicate quickly over long distances." | Action potentials |
| What are the 4 Fs? | 1.Feeding 2.Fleeing 3.Fighting 4.Fornication (reproducing) |
| What is the overall goal of the nervous system? | To enable the organism to move its body appropriately to succeed at the 4 Fs |
| Neuron communicatie in a vaste network by ____ and ____ signals. | chemical, electrical |
| "Cell in the nervous system. Specialized to quickly transmit electrical signals to other neurons (via synapses); networks of neurons can coordinate their activity to process information & to serve specific functions in guiding the organism's behaviour." | Neurons |
| "The double layer of phospholipids and proteins that isolates the inside of the cell from the outside." | Membrane |
| What are the 4 zones of importance in neurons? | 1.Dendrites 2.Soma 3.Axon 4.Axon terminals |
| "Branching projections from the cell body of the neuron, specialized for collecting information from thousands of tiny chemical signals & conveying that information into the neuron through the soma." | Dendrites |
| "The largest part of the neuron, it contains the nucleus and most of the specialized organelles of the cell." | Soma (cell body) |
| "Situated in the soma. Multiple ____ typically gather together to perform similar functions (ex: control specific motor function or processing specific type of sensory info). Control center of the cell that regulates activity, including gene expression." | Nucleus |
| The ___ plays a key role in integrating the signals coming from the dendrites. | soma |
| "The long projection from the cell body of the neuron that is specialized for conveying information away from the neuron." | Axon |
| What are 3 ways axons differ from dendrites? | 1.Only 1 axon coming from a neuron > can be many dendritic extensions 2.Axons remain constant in diameter along their length > dendrites narrow 3.Axons tend to be much longer than dendrites (axons can reach from spine to toe, dendrites less than 3mm) |
| "Branches at the end of the axon, from which neurotransmitters are released. Optimized for the output of signals." | Axon terminals |
| "A point of connection & communication between one neuron & another. The point where the axon terminals contact the next cells, and the chain of signaling continues." | Synapses |
| In the neuron, ______ collect, _____ integrate, ____ conduct, and _____ output information. | Dendrites, soma, axon, axon terminal |
| "Neurons that directly respond to signals from the outside environment (ex: light, sound waves, pressure, odors, etc.)" | Sensory neurons |
| "Neurons that convey motor commands from the brain & spinal cord to the muscles of the body. Direct output to muscles or glands; they are the final step for signals to exit the nervous system & effect change in the body movement." | Motor neurons |
| "(Arrival) A neuron that conveys sensory information into the nervous system." | Afferent neurons |
| _____ neurons are efferent because they carry information out of the brain to effector organs (ex: muscles or glands). | Motor |
| _____ neurons are afferent because they send information in to the brain. | Sensory |
| "(Exit) A neuron that conveys information out of the nervous system." | Efferent neurons |
| What are the 3 different type of neuron shapes? | 1.Multipolar neurons 2.Bipolar neurons 3.Monopolar neurons |
| "Neurons with a single large axon and multiple branches of dendrites providing input to the cell body." | Multipolar neurons |
| "Neurons with just one dendrite and one axon connected to the cell body." | Bipolar neurons |
| "Neurons with just one conncetion to the cell body; leaves the soma and branches in 2 directions. One end receives the information and the other end serves for output." | Monopolar neurons |
| "Neurons all share the common feature of being _____; that is, they do not divide like many other cell types in the body." | postimotic |
| Monopolar neurons are typically found in ____ neurons that signal ____ and ____. | sensory, touch, pain |
| Neurons are a type of ____. | cell |
| What are 3 functions of the glial cell? | 1.Provide ways to speed up the signaling from neurons 2.Regulate the concentration of extracelullar chemicals 3.Determine the extent to which networks of neurons can modify their connections |
| "A class of non-neuron cells within the nervous system that perform a range of supporting functions to ensure an optimal environment for the neurons themselves." | Glial cells (glia) |
| What are the 4 basic types of glial cells? | 1.Oligodendrocytes 2.Schwann cells 3.Astrocyte 4.Microglia |
| "Glial cells that wrap myelin around the axons of neurons in the central nervous system." | Oligodendrocytes |
| Oligodendrocytes are found only in the _____ nervous system. | central |
| "Glial cells that wrap myelin around the axons of neurons in the peripheral nervous system." | Schwann cells |
| "A fatty material wrapped around the axons of neurons that provides electrical insulation of the membrane and thereby increases the speed of conduction of action potentials along the axon." | Myelin |
| "Collections of myelin, each of which is wrapped around the length of the axon to speed up neural conduction." | Myelin sheaths |
| "Gaps in the myelin sheaths that enable ions to cross the neuronal membrane in order to distribute the action potential along the axon." | Nodes of Ranvier |
| Schwann cells are found in the _____ nervous system. | peripheral |
| What are 6 functions of the astrocytes? | 1.Physical structural support 2.Maintain the balance of chemicals outside the neurons 3.Repair injuries in the central nervous system 4.Contrivute nutrients 5.Regulate blood flow to a region 6.Release chemical signals |
| "A star-shaped glial cell that regulates the chemical concentration gradient (increase or decrease) around the neurons." | Astrocytes |
| "(Glial cell) provide immune system functions for central nervous system. Constantly searching for any infectuous agents that might damage normal neural tissue. When they detect a foreign body, they consume & destroy it (prevent disease & inflammation)" | Microglia |
| "Chemical substances, released when a neuron is active, that transmits signals to another neuron, changing that second neuron's activity." | neurotransmitters |
| "The space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons across which the neurotransmitters diffuse." | Synaptc cleft |
| "Membrane-bound sacs of neurotransmitters stored in the presynaptic terminal of the axon." | Synaptic vesicles |
| "A neurotransmitter used in both the central and peripheral nervous system. Causes muscles to contract, activates pain responses and regulate endocrine and REM sleep functions." | Acetylcholine |
| "A class of neurotransmitters playing an important role in sleep, appetite, mood, anxiety, and other homeostatic, motivational, and emotional functions; includes dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine, serotonin, and melotonin." | Monoamines |
| "A subtype of monoamine neurotransmitters, including dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine. Help body respond to "fight-or-flight" actions" | Catecholamines |
| "Neurotransmitter molecules that are the building blocks of proteins." | Amino acids |
| "A neurotransmitter molecule that is both an amino acid and the most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the nervous system." | Glutamate |
| "The major inhibitory neurotransmitter of the central nervous sytem in the vertebrate organisms. Is an amino acid. | GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) |
| "Neurotransmitters that are built from short chains of amino acids." | Peptide neurotransmitters |
| "Neurotransmitters that transmit signals in the opposite direction of most neurtransmission, ie, backwards from postsynaptic cell to the presynaptic cell." | Retrograde transmitters |
| Neurotransmitter gases are referred to as _____ transmitters because they transmit signals from the _____ cell to the _____ cell. | retrograde, postsynaptic, presynaptic |
| Name 5 types of neurotransmitters. | 1.Monoamines 2.Amino acids 3.Peptide neurotransmitters 4.Gases 5.Organic cation |
| Name 3 examples of monoamines (neurotransmitters). | 1.Dopamine 2.Serotonin 3.Epinephrine 4.Norepinephrine 5.Melatonin |
| Name 2 examples of amino acids (neurotransmitters). | 1.Gultamate 2.Aspartate 3.GABA 4.Glycine |
| Name 2 examples of peptide neurotransmitters. | 1.Cholecystokinin 2.Somatostatin 3.Neuropeptide Y |
| Name 2 examples of neurotransmitter gases. | 1.Nitric oxide 2.Carbon monoxide |
| Name 1 organic cation (neurotransmitter) | 1.Acetylcholine |
| "Proteins embedded in the cell membrane that are specialized to interact with neurotransmitters and extert signaling effects on the cell, via mechanisms such as ion channels or metabolic signaling pathways." | Receptors |
| "Receptors that, when activated by a neurotransmitter, open a channel through the cell membrane to allow ions to enter ot leave the cell." | Ionotropic receptors |
| "(Receptors) When activated by a neurotransmitter, exert effects on neural activity via cell-signaling pathways (ex: G-proteins); in contrast, ionotropic receptors contain channels & exert effects directly by altering the membrane potential of a neuron." | Metabotropic receptors |
| "A common type of metabotropic receptor that acts through a G-protein on the inner surface of the postsynaptic cell; some types of receptor for dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine fall into this class." | G-coupled protein receptor |
| "Molecules located on the inner surface of the cell membrane that carry the signal from the G-couple receptor to the metabolic cellular machinery that is the ultimate target of the signaling pathway." | G-proteins |
| "Molecules used by metabotropic receptors as part of the signaling cascade to trigger physiological changes in target processes in the cell; examples include intracellular calcium and nitric oxide." | Second messengers |
| "Proteins embedded in the cell membrane that allow ions to cross between the inside and outside of the cell." | Ion channels |
| "In the context of neurotransmission at the synapse, the process through which neurotransmitters are inactivated by being broken down by enzymes or other molecules." | Degradation |
| "The process through which neurotransmitters are inactivate by being transported back into the presynaptic neuron, where they can be reused (most common)." | Reuptake |
| "Proteins that move neurotransmitter molecules from the synapse across the cell membrane and back into the axon terminals as part of the reuptake process." | Transporters |
| What 3 methods clean out the neurotransmitters that have detached from the receptors and into the synaptic cleft? | 1,Degradation 2.Reuptake 3.Diffusion |
| "The difference in electric potential between the inside and outisde of the cell." | Membrane potential |
| "Change in the membrane potential of the postsynaptic membrane > the inside of the cell becomes less negative, normally because of positively charged ions entering the cell; usually results from the release of excitatory neurotransmitters at the synapse." | Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) |
| "Change in membrane potential of the postsynaptic membrane> inside of the cell becomes more -ve, because of + charged ions exciting the cell or - charged ions entering the cell; usually results from release of inhibitory neurotransmitters at the synapse." | Inhibitory postsynpatic potential (IPSP) |
| The process of neurotransmission is the main target for ___ and ___ that affect mood and cognition (outside world function). | drugs, medication |
| It is not the transmitter molecule itself that is excitatory or inhibitory; it is the action of the _____ that determines the effect. | receptor |
| "A rapid change in the neuron's membrane potential that is used to transmit information from the cell body to the presynaptic terminal." | Action potential (nerve impulse or spike) |
| "The process by which EPSPs and IPSPs that occur at slightly different times can combine to change the cell membrane's potential." | Temporal summation |
| "The idea that EPSPs and IPSPs that occur at different locations along the cell's membrane at approximately the same time can combine to change the cell membrane's potential." | Spatial summation |
| In which 2 ways can postsynaptic potentials add up so that the soma has the opportunity to integrate signals flowing into different parts of the dendrites? | 1.Temporal summation 2.Spatial summation |
| When does temporal summation occur? | When EPSPs and IPSPs arrive close in time and their contributions add up at the soma, leading to an action potential. |
| When does spatial summation occur? | When signals arrive on different branches of the dendrites, converging at the soma, leading to an action potential |
| "When the number of excitatory potentials overwhelm the number of inhibitory potentials, and drives the cell's voltage toward more positive values." | Depolarized |
| "(Action potential) The membrane potential at which a neuron will generate an action potential, typically, this is about -60 mV." | Threshold |
| "The portion of the axon that connects to the cell bosy. It is the most excitable part of the neuron and therefore the location where spikes (action potentials) are initiated." | Axon hillock |
| What are the 2 ions that play key roles in making an action potential? | 1.Sodium (Na+) 2.Potassium (K+) |
| When the cell is at rest, there is a high concentration of ___ on the outside of the cell (with a much lower concentration on the inside) and a high concentration of ___ inside the cell (with a much lower concentration on the outside). | Na+, K+ |
| "Ion channels that change from a closed to an open state when the membrane potential reaches a certain value. These types of channels play an important role in triggering and propagating action potentials along the axon." | Voltage-gated ion channels |
| "The difference in concentration between ions outside versus inside the cell; ions move down the gradient, from an area of higher concentration to an area or lower concentration." | Concentration gradient |
| "The difference in eletrical charge between 2 regions, such as the inside and outside of the cell; ions will move down the grdient toward the area with the opposite charge (This is why Na+ ions will find a way into the cell when the channels open)." | Electrical gradient |
| "The time following the action potential when the voltage-gated ion channels are inactivated and unable to generate another action potential (This is why the Na+ ions will find a way into the cell when the channels open)." | Refractory period |
| Why can't the action potential move back to a location where it has already occured, but can only travel forward? | Because of the refractory period after an action potential > the Na+ channels are more resistant to opening. |
| What are the 2 reasons why Na+ ions are driven into the cell when the voltage-gated ion channels open? | 1.Concentration gradient 2.Electrical gradient |
| "The distribution of an action potential along a myelinated axon, in which the axon potential "jumps" along the axon from one node of Ranvier to the next." | Saltatory conduction |
| How do anaesthetics work (ex: stitches with no pain)? | By blocking action potentials |
| How do action potentials lead to neurotransmitter release (2 steps)? | 1.Action potential invades the axon terminal, opening Ca++ channels 2.The entry of Ca++ causes the vesicles to fuse with the membrane, allowing neurotransmitters to be released. |
| "A system in which neurons encode information about the stimulus by changing the number of action potentials they generate within a short window of time. For example, a mechanoreceptor may use higher firing rates to encode stronger tactile stimuli." | Rate coding |
| An output spike is a response to the coincidence of many ____ inputs arriving simultaneously. | excitatory |
| Neurons are not driven by other, single neurons, but instead by activity patterns over a ____. | population |
| "(Theory) A term describing a system of neural representation in which each feature of the outside world is encoded by a different neuron specialized to detect that particular feature, with no overlap in representation among neurons (wrong)." | Local coding |
| Explain the "grandmother cell" concept (type of local-coding theory). | Theory that the brain might contain a single unique cell for your grandmother and presumably a single unique cell for every other familial individual in your life experience: a local code of one unique cell to one unique stimulus (theory is wrong). |
| Why is the local coding theory unlikely (2 reasons)? | 1.There are a lot of neurons in the brain, but certainly not enough to recognize all the distinct patterns a person can recognize in a lifetime. 2.Brain cells die naturally over a lifetime > local-coding memory vulnerable to damage and degradation |
| "A property of neural representation in which a given stimulus or motor action is represented not by the activity of any single neuron, but by the collective activity of a group of neurons (correct)." | Population coding |
| "A group of neurons working toegther to encode a particular stimulus." | Coalition |
| Name 2 ways in which neurons form into "teams" to cooperate in a distributed coalition. | 1.Neurons can become active in such a way each neuron mutually excites the others 2.Neurons that are members of a temporary coalition fire synchronously, thereby distinguishing them from other neurons that are active for different reasons |
| Neurons are linked together in dense networks, connected to each other by ____, the sites of chemical transmission. | synapses |
| Neurotransmitters diffuse across the ______ and bind to _____ on the postsynaptic target. | synaptic cleft, receptors |
| Dendrites decode information by responding with small graded voltage changes to neurotransmitter behaviour on the membrane; the dendrites and some sum these signals. Output depends on whether the summed voltage reaches ____ for initiating a spike. | threshold |
| A neuron decodes information not with single spikes, but instead in its frequency of firing (_______). | Rate coding |
| Individually, neurons are ____; collectively, they can be precise. | noisy |
| Although neurons are traditionally recorded from one at a time, neural coding involves _______ of neurons working together in _______ coalitions. | populations, transient (imparmanent) |
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