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Biology Semester 2
the starred ones i need help with
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| 1st division | creates 2 cells with a haploid number of chromosomes and are in X form |
| 2 parts of cell cycle | interphase and cell division |
| 2 parts of protein synthesis | transcription and translation |
| 2nd division | creates 4 cells and chromosome are in their original shape |
| 3 steps of mRNA processing | cap added, poly A tail added, spliced |
| Adaptions for Fitness | Survival, Reproduction, Artificial Selection, Descent with Modification |
| adaptive radiation | species diversifies into many new species |
| Alfred Wallace | naturalist; proposed theory of evolution individually; writes to darwin about theory promoting him to publish theory which formed many years before |
| Allele | Different forms of a gene |
| analogous | look and function same but not from common ancestor |
| Anaphase | chromosomes split at centromere and go to opposite ends |
| Anaphase I | same as mitosis except chromosome number stays the same and tetrads separate |
| artificial selection | most fit adaptions are based on human choices; individuals are bred to pass on desired traits |
| asexual multicellular | use cell division process with mitosis to create whole new organism |
| asexual reproduction | produce new organism genetically identical to the original |
| asexual unicellular | when cell to large, divides and identical to parent cell |
| Autosomes | Any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome |
| Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty (1944) | repeated Griffith's experiment using enzymes to destroy macromolecules each round |
| backbones | sugar and phosphate alternating |
| bacteriophage | virus that infects bacteria |
| Barr body | Inactivated X chromosome |
| base pairing | A and T, C and G |
| bases are held together by | hydrogen bonds |
| behavioral isolation | separated by behavioral differences and don't mate |
| beneficial consequences of mutation | protein change works faster, more protein and benefits |
| benign tumors | stay clustered together and can be removed |
| biochemical | dna sequences between 2 closely related species are more similar than those who are not |
| bionary fission | single cell dividing producing 2 new cells each its own organism |
| blastocyst | hollow ball of cells (outer cell mass) filled with fluid with cluster of cells in the inside wall (inner cell mass) |
| bottleneck effect | randomly remove large numbers of individuals from a population |
| cancer | uncontrollable cell divison |
| Carbon-14 | relatively new; for living things |
| Carolus Linnaeus | Botanist; proposed a classification system to name and group species |
| causes of mutation | environment, replication error, crossing-over error, mitosis or meiosis error |
| Cell Division | cell splits into 2 daughter cells |
| cells are-- before gamete cell division | haploid |
| Central Dogma | DNA-RNA-Protein |
| Chargoff | noticed adenine adenine and thymine was similar and cytosine and guanine were similar |
| Charles Darwin | studied theology in college; naturalist abroad HMS Beagle; proposed theory of evolution; published "On the Origin of Species" in 1859 |
| Charles Lyell | geologist; published "Principles of Geology"; proposed the same forces at work in geology today are the same that shaped structures throughout time on earth; had to take a long time |
| Chromatin | chromosome spread out |
| Chromatin form | DNA helix is wrapped around histone proteins and instructions easy to get to |
| chromosomal mutation | change to the sequence which is seen on a chromosomal level |
| Chromosome form | DNA helix tightly coiled with proteins and easy to move |
| Cladograms | diagrams showing evolutionary relationships |
| coding strand | DNA strand not being copies |
| Codominance | A condition in which both alleles for a gene are fully expressed |
| coevolution | species evolve together because of a close ecological relationship |
| convergent evolution | species evolve to a similar form from different ancestors and adaptive to similar environment |
| cyclins | proteins whose levels rise and fall, must reach certain level and interact with kinases to create cell division |
| Cytokenesis | cell splits into 2 |
| cytokinesis | cytoplasm divides |
| Cytokinesis I | same as mitosis but 2 haploid cells created |
| Darwin studied | differences within and between species |
| living specimens | |
| fossils | |
| geology | |
| Darwin's Theory | Variation |
| Struggle for Existence | |
| Natural Selection | |
| deletion | a base is removed |
| deletion (chromosomal) | part of the chromosome has been lost |
| Descent with Modification | individuals have a common descent; evolution over a long period of time diversifies species; all species descend from common ancestor |
| diploid | cell containing 2 copies of each chromosome |
| directional selection | occurs when natural selection favors one of the extreme variations of a trait |
| disruptive selection | average phenotype selected against |
| DNA nucleotide | deoxyribose, phosphate group, nitrogenous base |
| DNA overload | same amount of dna must serve larger and larger areas |
| DNA polymerase | enzyme that adds new nucleotides during DNA replication |
| down syndrome | a trisomy of chromosome 21 |
| duplication | part of the chromosome is repeated |
| Edwards syndrome | trisomy of chromosome 18 |
| EFE: Species | finch beaks; tortoise neck and shell; marine iguanas; organism patterns of similar environments |
| embryology | many embryos looks similar to each other during development and develop in similar ways |
| embryonic, fetal, and adult stem cell | stem cells around body and will divide to form a few types of specialized cells (multipotent) |
| end of interphase | cell will have extra organelles and amount of DNA doubled |
| endosymbiotic theory | eukaryotic cells created from symbiotic communities of prokaryotes |
| Epistasis | A type of gene interaction in which one gene alters the phenotypic effects of another gene that is independently inherited. |
| evidence from fossil record | 99% species extinct |
| exons | coding segments of DNA |
| external controls | growth factors, hormones, and crowding |
| F1 generation | offspring of the P generation- hybrid |
| F2 generation | Offspring resulting from interbreeding of the hybrid F1 generation. |
| formation of gametes is in -- divisons | 2 |
| fossil record | Darwin knew fossils represented dead organisms; knew newer organisms on top; record showed evidence of change over time |
| fossils | sedimentary rock; ex. eggs, skeletons, footprints, droppings |
| founder effect | small part of population removes itself from the larger population |
| frameshift mutation | mutation that moves all the remaining bases forward or backward |
| functions of RNA | instructions to build protein, help build protein, regulatory functions |
| G0 phase | cells stay in G1 phase for a very long time or forever |
| G1 phase | cell performs normal functions |
| G2 Phase | replicates organelles |
| Galapagos Islands | chain of islands near Ecuador |
| gametes | sex cells |
| Gene | A segment of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a specific trait |
| gene flow | members of one population move to another population and breed |
| gene pool | all the genes within a population |
| gene shuffling | creates new variation by changing parts of the genetic code |
| genetic drift | change in allele frequency due to random effects |
| Genotype | genetic makeup of an organism |
| geographical isolation | separated by geographical barriers |
| Griffith's experiment | conducts series of experiments by injecting bacteria into mice |
| half-life | amount of time required for half of a radioactive isotope to decay |
| Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium | allelic frequency stay the same |
| harmful consequences of mutation | loss of function, change to regulatory section causing too much or too little of a protein |
| heat killed S strain | mice lives |
| helicase | unwinds the dna and binding proteins holds the strands apart |
| Hershey and Chase (1952) | focused on protein vs DNA using bacteriophage |
| Heterozygous | An organism that has two different alleles for a trait |
| histone proteins | the bead chromatin is looped around |
| homologous chromosomes | 2 matching chromosomes |
| homologous structure | structures that are similar in different species of common ancestry |
| homozygous dominant | Both alleles (factors) for a trait are the same and dominant (AA) |
| homozygous recessive | Both alleles (factors) for a trait are the same and recessive (aa) |
| How does a prokaryote of DNA look? | loop of dna not in nucleus |
| How many autosomes do humans have? | 44 |
| how many chromosomes are in humans? | 46 |
| how was generation created | self-pollination |
| incomplete dominance | Situation in which one allele is not completely dominant over another allele |
| Inheritance of Acquired Traits | traits acquired by an organism can be passed on to the next generation |
| inner cell mass | pluripotent and can form body cells but not supporting structures |
| insertion | extra base is added |
| internal controls | checkpoints and cyclins |
| interphase | period of time where the cell grows and performs its functions for the body |
| introns | non coding sequences of DNA |
| inversion | part of the chromosome has been flipped |
| James Hutton | geologist; proposed earth was millions of years old which was based on the processes of rock upheaved and weathering |
| Jean Baptiste Lamarck | french naturalist; proposed one of the first theories about how species change over period of time; evolution |
| Klinefelter syndrome | XXY |
| Lamarck's Theory | 3 principles: Tendency Towards Perfection, Use and Disuse, Inheritance of Acquired Traits |
| Ligase | enzyme that seals the backbone by connecting sugars and phosphates |
| linked gene | one of a pair of genes that tend to be inherited together |
| malignant tumor | can invade other tissues and difficult to remove |
| Meiosis II | same as mitosis except starting cell is haploid and ends in 4 unique haploid cells |
| Metaphase | chromosome lines up in middle of cell |
| Metaphase I | same as mitosis but tetrads line up down middle instead of individual chromosomes |
| mitosis | division of nucleus |
| mitosis ends with -- nuclei with the diploid number of chromosomes | 2 |
| mitosis starts with -- nuclei with the diploid number of chromosomes | 1 |
| Monosomy | Chromosomal abnormality consisting of the absence of one chromosome from the normal diploid number |
| mosaic | two different types of cells |
| mRNA | carries instructions for protein production from nucleus to ribosome |
| multiple alleles | A gene that has more than two alleles |
| natural selection | organisms have adaptions that make them a good match to environment; individuals with better fitness survive longer and reproduce more therefore passing on their genes; future generations have more individuals with the well-fitted adaption |
| non-harmful consequence of mutation | causes no change to protein, causes no change to function, causes change to function but not harmful neither beneficial, non-coding section |
| oncogenes | accelerate cell cycle |
| p generation | Purebred cross |
| p53 gene | normally stops the cell division from occurring until all chromosomes are replicated |
| Patau Syndrome | trisomy of chromosome 13 |
| Pedigree symbols | circles: female, square: male, colored in: affected |
| peptide bond | Bonds that connect amino acids. |
| Phenotype | An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits. |
| point mutation | occur at a single point in DNA |
| polygenetic trait | trait controlled by two or more genes |
| primase | enzyme that adds a short section of RNA nucleotides |
| principle of dominance | Mendel's second conclusion, which states that some alleles are dominant and others are recessive |
| Principle of Independent Assortment | genes for different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes |
| Principle of Segregation | During meiosis, chromosome pairs separate into different gametes such that each of the two alleles for a given trait appears in a different gamete. |
| Prophase | nucleus and membrane break down, DNA in chromosome form, and spindle fibers attach to centromere |
| Prophase I | same as mitosis except chromosomes pair up with homologous chromosome and crossing over occurs |
| prymidines | cytosine and thymine |
| punctuated equilibrium | evolution shows long stable period and then rapid burst of change |
| Punnett Square | A chart that shows all the possible combinations of alleles that can result from a genetic cross |
| purines | adenine and guanine |
| R strain and heat killed S strain | mice dies bc parts of heat killed S strain transferred to living R strain |
| R strain injected | mice live |
| radioactive dating | determining a ratio of radioactive elements in age of fossil |
| relative dating | location to other fossils |
| Reproduction | big size, costly structures, behavior |
| reproductive isolation | cannot mate and produce offspring |
| RNA has -- backbones | 1 |
| RNA nucleotide | ribose sugar, phosphate group, nitrogen base |
| Rosalind Franklin | used imaging techniques with x-rays to determine structure of DNA and was unknowingly providing Watson and Crick with the image to help them with figuring out the structure |
| rRNA | makes up the structure of the ribosome |
| S strain injected | mice dies |
| semi-conservative | each new DNA helix will have one old and one new strand |
| sexual multicellular | organism produce gametes and fuses together to produce zygote |
| sexual reproduction | organism creates new individual genetically unique to original |
| sexual unicellular | cells exchange pieces of nuclear material |
| somatic cell | any cell of a living organism other than the reproductive cells. |
| specialized cells | only create cell of same type and access to genes need for their function only (unipotent) |
| stabilizing selection | both extremes are selected against |
| stem cell | cells have the potential to divide and create more than one type of specialized cell |
| struggle for existence | populations would grow past resources and compete for food, space, mates |
| substitution | one base is exchanged for another |
| surface area/ volume ratio | cytoplasm increases faster than cell membrane, cell can't exchange enough material, material can't reach center fast enough |
| Survival | camouflage, bright colors, big size, heightened senses, behavior |
| Synthesis Phase | cells copy chromosome for the new cell |
| Telephase | spindle fiber break down and chromosomes go into chromatin form |
| Telophase I | same as mitosis |
| template | DNA strand being copied |
| temporal isolation | reproduce at different times |
| Tendency Toward Perfection | innate tendency towards complexity and perfection |
| tetrad | 2 of the same type of chromosome |
| the zygote is -- when the haploid cells come together | diploid |
| Thomas Malthus | economist; proposed human would run out of resources is the population continued to grow and that if resources were scarce, there would be competition |
| transcription | DNA sequence in a gene is copied into mRNA |
| transcription factors | proteins that bind to DNA and influence the expression of particular genes |
| translation | Process by which mRNA is decoded and a protein is produced |
| translocation | Part of a chromosome breaks off and attaches to another |
| Trisomy | extra chromosome |
| tRNA | attaches to specific amino acids and carries them to the ribosome |
| tRNA purpose | base pairs with exposed codons |
| Tumor supression genes | genes that stop cell cycle |
| Turner Syndrome | XO |
| Use and Disuse | organisms develops new adaption by using the structure more; organism loses an adaption by not using the structure |
| Variation | individuals vary from each other; genetic variations passed from generations |
| vestigial structure | structure that no longer has function but are still present |
| Watson and Crick | Developed the double helix model of DNA and won the Noble Prize for it |
| What 3 ways is cell division used? | growth, worn out, injury |
| What form of chromosome will it be in during cell division? | chromatin |
| What organism did Mendel study? | pea plants |
| where does transcription occur? | nucleus |
| zygote | divide and form all of the cell types in the body (called totipotent stem cell) |
Created by:
mathangis17
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