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Biology of Plants
Edinboro Botany course
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What are the characteristics of land plants? | *Only some motile (moving) cells - Male gametes*Cell Walls are always made of cellulose.*Plastids (organelles w/ 2 membranes present.*Body is always multicellular.*Persistent embriology (meristematic tissue). |
| What are the three plant body tissues? | Dermal (epidermis and periderm), Fundamental or ground (collenchyma, sclerenchyma, parencyhma), and Vascular (xylem and phloem). |
| Define Protoplast | Living substances of plant cell. Protoplast is a unit of protoplasm in one cell. |
| Define cytoplasm | Living contents of cell excluding the nucleus. |
| Define Prokaryotic cell | *Before a nucleus. *DNA not contained within a membrane. *Few organelles. *No cytoskeleton. |
| Define Eukaryotic cell | *True nucleus. *Nuclear envelope made of two membranes. * DNA is linear and tightly bound to histone proteins. *organelles (specialize membrane bounded part of cell). |
| Define Tonoplast | Single membrane that bounds the vacuole. |
| Define Cytosol | Cellular soup that suspends the nucleus and all other entities. |
| Location of plasma membrane | Inside the cell wall and outer boundary of cytoplasm. |
| Function of plasma membrane | *Controls transport in and out of protoplast. * Coordinates synthesis and assembly of cell wall. *Detects and facilitates response to hormonal and environmental signals involved in control of cell growth and differentiation. |
| Define cytoplasmic streaming | Cytoplasm in motion. |
| Which organelles have two membranes? | nucleus, plastids(chloroplast, chromoplast, leucoplast), and mitochondria. |
| Which organells have one membrane? | vacuole(tonoplast), peroxisomes, and ribosomes. |
| Define nuclear envelope | Pair of membranes that bound the nucleus. |
| Define somotic | Body cells |
| Define gametes | Sex cells |
| Define endoplasmic reticulum | A complex system of membranes that plays a role in cellular biosynthesis. |
| Function of ribosomes | Link amino acids to make proteins. They are small particles made of protein and RNA. |
| Define polysomes | Clusters of ribosomes. |
| What are the three plastids? | Chloroplast, chromoplst, leucoplast. |
| Function of chloroplast | Site of photosynthesis. They have chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments. They also synthesize amino acids and fatty acids. |
| Define grana thylakoids | Stacks of disclik membranes that look like coins in the chloroplast. |
| Define stroma thylakoids | Homogenous (spread out) matrix of membranes in the chloropast. |
| What are unique characteristics of plant cells? | vacuoles, cell walls made of cellulose, plastids, phragmoplast(cell division), persistent embriology, totipotency (Ability to develop an entire plant from one cell.). |
| Define totipotency | Ability to develop an entire plant from one cell. |
| Can starch grains be stored in the chloroplast? | Yes, but are temporary and uaually visible when cell is photosynthesizing. |
| Define semi-autonomous | An organelle that has DNA in circular form and ribosomes. Plastids are semi-autonomous. |
| Define chromoplast | They lack chlorophyll but synthesize and retain carotenoid pigments responsible for yello, red and orange colors. Can originate from proplastids, chloroplasts and leucoplasts. |
| Define Leucoplast | Nonpigmented plastid that lacks elaborate system of inner membranes. Amyloplast is a type of leucoplat that forms starch grains |
| Amyloplast is a type of: | Leucoplast |
| Define Proplastid | Precursors of other plastids. They are small, pale green or colorless. |
| Location of proplastids | Meristematic (dividing) cells of roots and shoots. |
| Define prolamellar bodies | Semicrystalline body found in plastids arrested in development by the absence of light. |
| Define etioplast | Plastid of a plant grown in the dark and containing a prolamellar body. |
| Function of mitochondria | They are generally smaller than plastids and the site of respiration (Breakdown of sugar or other organic compounds to carbon dioxide and water). They congregate where energy is needed. |
| Features of mitochondria | *Two membranes. *Cristae. *Generally smaller than plastids. *Semi-autonomous. * |
| Mitochondria and chloroplasts were once believed to be: | Bacteria that were engulfed by larger heterotrophic cells. |
| Define peroxisomes | Spherical organells bounded by a single membrane. They have an important role in photorespiration (Reverse of photosynthesis. Process consumes oxygen and releases CO2. They have granular interior, but no internal membranes. Associated with E.R. |
| Define glyoxysomes | A peroxisome with enzymes to convert fats to sugar. |
| Where is the cell sap? | Inside the vacuole. |
| What is in the cell sap of the vacuole? | Inorganic ions, sugars, organic acids, amino acids, and contents not formed in the vacuole but received from the cytoplasm. |
| How much of a mature cell is made up of vacuole? | Approximately 90% |
| Function of the vacuole | *cell rigidity. *Storage of sugars, organic acids and reserve proteins in seeds.*Removes toxic secondary metabolites such as nicotine and tannin. *Anthocyanins. *inorganic ions can become crystals. *Breakdown of macromolecules. |
| Define endoplasmic reticulum | ER is a membrane system that is a communication system within the cell and channels materials such as proteins, oil bodies, lipids and organic ions. It is also the structural element that anchors cytoskeleton. ER permeates the entire cytosol. |
| Define cytoskeleton | Flexible network within cells composed of microtubules, actin filaments and microfilaments. |
| Define rough ER | Cells that store proteins have abundant rough ER which consists of flatened sacs or cisternae with numerouse polysomes. |
| Define Smooth ER | Cells that secrete lipids have smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes and is largly tubular. |
| Function of cortical ER | *Regulates the level of calcium ions. *Structural element that anchors cytoskeleton of the cell. *Indicator of the metabolic and developmental status of a cell. |
| Define plasmodesmata | Threads of cytoplasmic material that traverse cell walls and play a role in cell-to-cell communication. |
| Define oil bodies | Oil bodies or lipid drops are created in ER. They are spherical and create granular appearance to cytoplasm. |
| Function of golgi bodies | Synthesize, sort, package, and transport polysaccharides and glycoproteins destined for the cell wall. |
| Define exocytosis | Secretion of substances from cells in vesicles. |
| Function of cytoskeleton | Cell division (phragmoplast), growth and differentiation, movement of organelles. |
| Function of microtubules | *enlarge cells, *differentiate cells, *increase cell wall size and direction of expansion, *Direct secretory golgi vesicles, *cell division (phragmoplast), *part of flagella and cilia (hairlike structures that extend from surfaces of reproductive cells. |
| Function of Actin filaments | *cell wall deposition, *movement of nucleus before and following cell division, *organelle movement, *vesicle mediated secretion, *ER organization, *cytoplasmic streaming |
| Define flagella and cilia | Hairlike structures that extend from surface of eukaryotic reproductive cells (gametes). |
| Function of cell wall | *Prevents the plasma membrane from rupturing when the protoplast enlarges. *Determines the size and shape of the cell and texture of tissue. *Contributes to final form of the plant organ. *Defense from bacteria & fungus. *absorption, transport, secretion. |
| What is the cell wall made of? | *Cellulose (carbohydrate made of glucose). *hemicellulose (tethers adjacent microfibrils). *Pectins (creates pliable properties). *Lignin (adds compression strength and rigidity.*Glycoproteins (extensions strengthen).Cutin, suberin, waxes(less water loss) |
| Function of middle lamella | Cements two adjacent primary cell walls. Rich in pectin. |
| What cells have only primary cell walls | Dividing immature cells or mature cells involved in photosynthesis, respiration and secretion, or would healing. |
| Define primary pit fields | Thinning area in the primary walls. Plasmodesmata is commonly found in primary pit fields. |
| Function of the secondary wall | Strengthening and water conduction. Secondary walls have more cellulose and less pectin. There are three layers (S1, S2, S3). Found in cells that have stopped growing. |
| Define plant growth | Cell division and elongation. |
| Define expansins | Cell wall proteins that loosen wall structure for growth. |
| How is the plasmodesmata formed? | During cell division pieces of ER are trapped in the cell plate which creates an opening. |
| Define phragmoplast | A microtubular structure that functions in cell division by forming the cell plate. |
| What happens when a vacuole breaks open? | It functions like a lysosome and digests the contents of the cell. |
| Define ergastic substances | Substances produced from work including products of metabolism. They are found cell walls and vacuoles (starch, crystals, tanins, resins, gums, lipids, proteins) |
| Define Meristem | Embryonic tissue regions with cells that continually divide and form new cells. |
| Define apical meristem | Found at the tips of roots and shoots and involved with extension of plant body. |
| Define initials | Cells that perpetuate the meristem. They divide and one sister cell remains in the meristem as an intial, while the other becomes a new body cell or derivative. |
| Name the three primary meristems and the tissue that arises from each. | Protoderm gives rise to the dermal tissue.Ground meristem gives rise to the ground tissue (collenchyma, parenchyma, sclerenchyma).Procambium gives rise to the vascular tissue (primary xylem and primary phloem). |
| Define indeterminite growth | Unlimited or prolonged growth (apical meristem). |
| How does meristematic tissue make plant cells unique? | Plants form new organs and continue to grow their entire life span due to meristematic tissue. |
| What are the three overlapping processes involved in development of plants? | Growth,morphogenesis, and differentiation. |
| Define morphogenesis | Plant assumes a particular shape or form. |
| Define differentiation | Process by which cells with identical genetic constitutions become different from one another. In other words what type of cell will it become. |
| Does the location of a cell make a difference in its differentiation? | Yes, the final position determines what type of cell it will become. A displaced cell will differentiate to the type of cell in its new location. |
| Define determination | A progressive committment to a specific course of development that brings about a weakening or loss of capacity to resume growth. |
| Define competency | Ability of the cell to develop in response to a specific signal. Some cells have the capacity to dedifferentiate and have progeny divide into any cell. |
| What plant tissues are simple? | Ground tissue (parenchyma, sclerenchyma, collenchyma) |
| What plant tissues are complex? | Vascular (xylem and phloem) and Dermal (epidermis and periderm) |
| Function of parenchyma tissue | photosynthesis, storage and secretion |
| Which ground tissue is least specialized and most plentiful? | Parenchyma |
| What are the identifying characteristics of parenchyma cells? | *Living at maturity. *Form continuous mass of cells that occur as parenchyma tissue. *Can also be found as strands or rays in vascular tissue. *Most have thin primary cell walls. *Retain their meristematic ability and can develop into any other tissue. |
| Define transfer cells | Parenchyma cells with wall ingrowths. Ingrowths increase surface area of the plasma membrane. They facilitate movement of solutes over short distances. |
| Function of collenchyma tissue | Structural support of young growing organs. |
| what are the identifying characteristics of collenchyma cells? | *Found immediately beneath the epidermis. *Most distinctive feature is unevenly thickened, nonlignified primary walls, which are soft and pliable and have glistening apperance in fresh tissue. *Living at maturity. *Discrete strands or continuous cylinders |
| Function of sclerenchyma tissue | Stengthen and support plant parts no longer elongating. |
| What are the identifying characteristics of sclerenchyma cells? | *Often lack protoplast at maturity. *Thick and often lignified secondary walls. *Continuous masses as tissue or may occur in small groups or as individuals among other cells. *Includes fibers and sclereids. |
| What are the two types of sclerenchyma cells? | Fibers (long, slender, occur in strands or bundles) and sclereids (Variable in shape and often branched. Shorter than most fibers. Brachysclereids - stones with ramiform pits that give pears gritty texture. Astrosclereids - Branchlike. |
| What are two vascular tissues? | Xylem and phloem |
| what is primary vascular tissue derived from? | Procambium |
| What is secondary vascular tissue derived from? | Vascular cambium |
| Function of xylem | Water and mineral conducting tissue. Also functions in mechanical support and food storage. |
| What are the principal conducting cells of xylem? | Tracheary elements |
| What are the two types of tracheary elements? | Tracheids and vessel element |
| What are the identifying characteristics of tracheids (xylem cell)? | *Gymnosperms. *Elongated cells. *Secondary walls. *Lack protoplasts at maturity. *Pits in walls. *Lack perforations. *Found in most seedless vascular plants and gymnosperms. |
| What are the identifying characteristics of vessel elements (xylem cell)? | *Angiosperms. *Elongated. *Secondary walls. *Lack protoplasts at maturity. *Pits in walls. *Perforations (areas that lack both primary and secondary walls that usually occurs on the end walls.*Vessel elements stack end to end to form vessels. |
| Which tracheary element (xylem) is thought to be more efficient? | Vessel elements since water can flow from element to element through perforations. |
| How are secondary walls layed down in tracheary elements? | During elongation or expansion the secondary walls are diposited in the form of rings or spirals. Annular or ringlike. Helical or spiral. Scalariformly or ladder. |
| Function of phloem | Food conduction tissue including transportation of sugars, amino acids, lipids, micronutrients, hormones, proteins, and RNA. "Super information highway" |
| What are the principal conducting cells of phloem? | Sieve cells and sieve tube elements. |
| Define sieve areas (phloem) | Clusters of pores through which protoplast of adjacent sieve elements are connected. |
| What are the defining characteristics of sieve cells (phloem)? | *gymnosperms. *NO sieve plate. *Has protoplast at maturity. *Area pores are narrow and sieve areas are uniform in structure on all walls. *albuminous cells (specialized parenchyma cells with functioning nucleus.). |
| What are the defining characteristics of sieve tube elements (phloem)? | *Angiosperms. *Have sieve plates. *Has protoplast at maturity. *Companion cells (specialized parenchyma cell with functioning nucleus. Shares mother cell with sieve cell) |
| Which vascular elements have living protoplasts? | Sieve elements of phloem have living protoplasts but do not have a nucleus or tonoplast. |
| Define callose | A polysaccharide that lines and blocks the pores of the sieve area. Deposited in the pores as a response to injury (wound callose) or when the cell is dieing or no longer functioning (definitive callose). |
| Define P-protein | Phloem protein once called "slime" line the pores and plug the pores when the tissues are damaged. Found in sieve tube elements of angiosperms. |
| Define companion cells | A specialized parenchyma cell associated with the sieve tube element of angiosperms. Has a functioning nucleus that supports the sieve tube element. Also shares mother cell with the sieve tube element. Usually not as long as sieve tube element. |
| Define albuminous cells | A specialized parenchyma cell associated with sieve cells of gymnosperms. Has a functioning nucleus that supports the sieve cells. |
| Define epidermis | Dermal tissue of leaves, floral parts, fruits and seeds. Also on stems and roots until they undergo secondary growth. One layer of cells thick. |
| Functiono of epidermis | Protection, absorption, control of transpiration (note: does not have chloroplast except in guard cells). |
| What are the types of epidermal tissue? | Guard cells and trichomes |
| Define cuticle | Covers walls of epidermal cells to minimize water loss. Made of cutin and waxes. |
| Define stomata | Small pore in the aerial part of plants that releases water vapor. Controlled by guard cells. Usually found on the abaxial parts of leaves. |
| Define guard cells | Control the stomata that regulates water vapor in and out of the stomata. Most abundant on leaves and usually associated with subsidiary cells (epidermal cells that differ in shape from ordinary epidermal cells). |
| Function of trichomes (hairs) | Absorb water and minerals, reflects solar radiation, lowers leave temperature, reduces water loss, removes toxic substances (salt), defense against insects. |
| Define periderm | Replaces the epidermis in stems and roots that undergo seconary growth. Compact cells with some portions (lenticels) that are loosely arranged to provide aeration. Layed down when plant increases in girth. |
| What are the layers of the periderm from the outside? | Dead epiderms, cork or phellem (heavily suberized), cork cambium or phellogen, phelloderm (living parenchyma tissue). |
| Define tissue | Group of cells of similar structure that are organized in some kind of functional unit. |
| What is C6H12O6 | Glucose |
| Define osmosis | The diffusion of water, or any solvent, across a selectively permeable membrane; in the absence of other forces, the movement of water during osmosis will always be from a region of water with greater potential to one of lesser water potential. |
| Define totipotency | Ability to develop an entire plant from one cell. |
| Where do parenchyma cells occur? | Cortex of stems, pith of stems and roots, leaf of mesophyll, horizontal rays in vascular tissue. |
| Xylos is greek for | Wood |
| Phloos is greek for | Bark. Bark is phloem. |
| What is the first structure to emerge from the germinating seed? | The root |
| What are the functions of the root? | Achorage (primary), Absorption (primary), Storage (secondary) and Conduction (secondary). |
| What are the two types of root systems? | Taproot (dicots) and fibrous (monocots) |
| Define primary root | First part of the plant to originate in embryo. |
| Define taproot | Primary root of seed plants that grows directly downward and gives rise to lateral roots. |
| Define lateral root | Branch roots off tap or primary root. |
| What are the defining characteristics of the fibrous root system? | *Occurs in monocots. *Roots arise from the stem instead of taproot (adventitious roots). *Shallow roots that cling to soil (great for soil control). |
| Function of rootcap | Mass of parenchyma cells that protects the apical meristem. Aids in root penetration of the soil. |
| Define mucigel | Slimy sheath that covers sloughed cells and growing root tip. Lubricates root during passage in soil and prevents dessication. |
| Define gravitropism or geotropism | Response to gravity. |
| Define columella | Central column of cells and site of perception of gravity (geotropism) in the root. Almost all roots grow down. |
| What are the defining characteristics of promeristem (root)? | *Location of initials and immediate derivatives. *Cells have dense cytoplasm and the nuclei appear large because cells are so small. *Location of most cell division. |
| Define closed root apical organization | The rootcap, vascular cylinder and cortex each have own initials that are traceable to indivdual layers of cells in the apical meristem. |
| Define open root apical organization | The cortex and rootcap arise from one group of initials. |
| Define quiescent center | Relatively inactive region of root apical meristem where cell division is infrequent. Can repopulate bordering meristematic regions when root is injured. Plays an essential role in organization and development of root. |
| what are the regions of the root beginning at the tip? | Root cap, cell division, cell elongation, maturation or differentiation. |
| What region of the root are root hairs located? | Region of maturation or differentiation. |
| Function of root hairs | Absorb water and minerals. They are tubular extensions of the epidermal cells. |
| Define feeder roots | New and growing roots that are primarily involved in absorption of water and minerals. |
| Define rhizosphere | Layer where soil is bound to the root by the mucigel and root hairs. |
| What is the ground tissue system in most roots that also occupies the greatest area of the root? | The cortex. |
| What happens to the root cortex during secondary growth? | In dicots the cortex, endodermis and epidermis are shed and replaced by a periderm of cork. In monocots the cortex is retained and cortical cells develop secondary walls that become lignified. |
| What are the spaces between the cells of the cortex called? | Intercellular spaces |
| Define endodermis | Inner most layer of cortex tissue with compact cells and no intercellular spaces. Casparian strips are located on anticlinal walls. |
| Define casparian strip | Bandlike portion of the primary wall and middle lamella that is impregnated with suberin and sometimes lignin. Creates hydrophobic property to anticlinal cell walls. |
| Define apoplastic | Movement of substances from cell wall to cell wall (not through protoplast). |
| Define symplastic | Movement of substances from protoplast to protoplast via plasmodesmata. |
| Define transcellular | Movement of substances from vacuole to vacuole. |
| Define passage cells | Endodermal cells that remain thin walled, have casparian strips, but do not have suberin on periclinal walls. Allow water and dissolved minerals to enter the vascular cylinder. |
| Define exodermis | Second compact layer of cells with casparian strips on the outer most layer of the cortex and just beneath the epidermis. Found in angiosperms. |
| Function of exodermis | Reduces water loss from the root and provides defense against microorganisms. |
| What is another name for the vascular cylinder of a root? | Steele |
| What are the parts of the vascular cylindar of a root? | Primary vascular tissue and the pericycle which all originates from the procambium. |
| Location of the pericycle of the root | Outside layer of the vascular cylinder. |
| Function of pericycle of the root | *Lateral roots arise in the pericycle. *Contributes to vascular cambium opposite the protoxylem and gives rise to the first cork cambium. |
| Location of the metaxylem | Occupies the inner portions of the ridges and center of vascular cylinder. |
| Location of the protoxylem | Next to the pericycle on the outside of the vascular cylinder. |
| Which primary xylem develops first in the root? | Protoxylem and then metaxylem. |
| Location of protoxylem poles in roots | Tips of ridges at the outside of the vascular cylinder and next to the pericycle. |
| What does secondary growth in roots and shoots require or involve? | 1. Laying down of secondary vascular tissue from the vascular cambium. 2. Formation of the periderm of cork tissue to replace the cortex and and endodermis. |
| Where is vascular cambium located in roots? | Between the primary xylem and primary phloem. |
| Where is secondary xylem and phloem located in roots? | Secondary xylem is layed on the inside, while secondeary phloem is pushed outward. |
| What happens to the primary xylem and phloem during secondary growth of roots? | Most of the primary xylem and phloem is crushed. |
| Define root lenticels | Regions of periderm with numerous cellular spaces that allow for gas exchange between the root and the soil atmosphere. |
| Define intercalary meristems | Not restricted to apex, but instead are regions embedded in mature tissue. An example is the vascular cambium. |
| What are the two apical meristems of a shoot? | Tunica and corpus |
| Define anticlinal division | Divsion perpendicular to the surface that increases surface area. New cells are placed beside old cells. |
| Define periclinal division | Division parallel to the surface that increases volume. new cells are layed behind or in front of old cells. |
| What are the defining characteristics of the tunica of a shoot? | *Outer most apical meristem layers. *Has two layers. *Anticlinal division which increases surface area of the shoot. |
| What are the defining characteristics of the corpus of the shoot? | *Several layers thick. *Anticlinal and periclinal division which increases both surface area and volume of the shoot. |
| Where is xylem and phloem located in roots and shoots? | Xylem is located on the inside, while phloem is located on the outside of the cylinder. |
| Do root apical meristems have a tunica or corpus? | NO |
| What are the characteristics of the apical meristem? | *Constantly dividing cells. *Small cells. *Nuclei appear large. *Small vacuoles. *Thin primary walls. *All organelles are replicating. *Dense cytoplasm. |
| What are the characteristics of enlarging cells? | *Elongating. *nucleus remains the same size but appears smaller since the cell is larger. *More cytoplasm but less dense because there is more room. *Large vacuoles. *Larger nuclear to cytoplasm ratio. |
| Define cotyledons | Seed leaves. |
| Define adventitous roots | Roots that develope from the stem. |
| Define auxins | Growth hormones that determine which way a plant shoot or root grows. Auxins respond to light and cause the plant to grow or bend toward the light (phototropic response). |
| What happens to cells when cellulose and lignin are added? | They stop functioning and stop the movement of water. |
| Define epiphyte | A plant that grows on other plants but are not parasitic of them. |
| What controls what goes into the steele? | Endodermis (inner most layer of the cortex). |
| Define endogenous | Deep tissue |
| What is the difference between protoxylem and metaxylem? | The time in which they mature. Protoxylem matures before the metaxylem. |
| What are the names for two, three, four and multiple primary xylem ridges of a root respectively? | Diarch, Triarch, tetrarch, polyarch |
| Does a dicot or monocot root have a pith in the middle? | Monocot |
| What is the sequence of steps for water movement in plants? | 1. Absorption through root hairs. 2. Movement through root cortex. 3. Movement through endodermis and into vascular tissue. 4. Once in the xylem the water moves through roots, up stems and into leaves. 5.Water then escapes from the leaves by transpiration |
| Define guttation | Water is forced up from roots through stomates or openings in veins due to root pressure. |
| What causes root pressure? | *No transpiration at night. *ions are secreted into xylem. *Water moves into xylem by osmosis. *Positive pressure is created by the water. *Root pressure forces water and dissolved ions up the xylem. |
| What are examples of modified roots? | Prop roots for stability(corn).Aerial roots w/ a special epidermsis called a velamen to prevent water loss(orchids).Pneumataphores or breathing roots that add aeration(cypress trees).Buttress roots that stabalize(tropical forest) |
| Define velamen | A multiple epidermis covering the aerial roots of some orchids. Reduces water loss and provided protection for the cortex. |
| What does the shoot consist of? | The stem and leaves. |
| Is the root or shoot structurally more complex? | The shoot |
| Where do lateral roots arise from? | The region of maturation, which occurs behind the root apex. |
| What is the area called that produces apical meristem, leaves and axillary buds, which develop into lateral shoots? | The shoot apex |
| What are the functions of the stem? | Support for flowers and leaves, storage for food and water (tubers and rhizomes), conduction, and photosynthesis. |
| What does leaf and bud primordia develop into respectively? | Leaves and lateral shoots. |
| What are the phytomeres? | Repeated units of nodes, attached leaves, internodes and axillary buds. |
| What type of apical meristem arrangement do most flowering plants have? | Tunica-corpus |
| Define the tunica of the stem | Outermost layer of cells of the apical meristem that divide anticlinally (perpendicular to the surface of the meristem). Anticlinal cell division increases the surface area. Tunica cell have their own initials. The number of tunica layers varies. |
| Define the corpus of the stem | Corpus cells are below the tunica and divide periclinally to increase volume. |
| The central zone of the shoot is like the what of the root? | Queiscent zone |
| The central zone of the shoot is surrounded by which zone? | The peripheral zone which is mitotically active. |
| Define the central zone of the shoot | The corpus and the portions of the tunica layers overlying the corpus which corresponds to the promeristem of the shoot apical meristem. |
| Define the peripheral zone of the shoot | It originates from the tunica and corpus, surrounds the central zone, and is 3-D and forms a ring around the central zone. |
| The protoderm of the shoot always originates from what? | The outermost layer of the tunica (L1). |
| What does internodal elongation cause? | Growth of the stem. |
| Do shoots or roots have a region of cell division, elongation, and maturation? | Roots only |
| Define intercalary meristem of the shoot | A localized meristematic region in the elongating internode. A region between two more highly differentiated regions. |
| Define meristematic shoot cap | A zone of procambium that forms in monocot shoots. |
| Do monocot or dicot shoot structures have piths? | Dicot shoots have piths. |
| Define the interfascicular region | Narrow parenchyma region that separates vascular bundles and interconnects pith and cortex of dicots. |
| What type of cells make up the pith of the shoot? | A continuous cylindar of collenchyma cells lies beneath the epidermis. The remainder of the cortex has parenchyma cells with chlorplasts when mature. |
| Define fascicle and interfascicle | Bundle and between bundle |
| What is the most fundamental organ of plants? | The stem. Some plants are rootless and leafless, but all plants have stems. |
| Define extant plant | All stem |
| What is a defining difference between stems and roots? | All stems have leaves. |
| Is the phloem of the stem structure located on the outside or inside? | Outside |
| Is the xyolem of the stem structure located on the outside or inside? | Inside |
| What are the defining characteristics of rhizomes (stem modification)? | *Horizontal stem at or below the soil. *Long and slender. *Not usually green if found under ground. *visible nodes. *Only monocots have leaves. *Dicots have upright stems and can be thick and fleshy (iris and ginger). *Adventitous roots at nodes. |
| What are the defining characteristics of stolons or runners (stem modification)? | *Very long internodes. *Horizonatal above ground stem. *Specialized for vegetative reproduction. *Examples are spider plant and strawberries. |
| What are all of the stem modifications? | Cladophyll (asparagus) Vine Thorn (Crataegus or hawthorne)Bulb (onion, lily, tulip, daffodils)Rhizome (iris, ginger)Corm (crocus, gladiolus, Taro)Stolon or runner (strawberry or spider plant)Tuber (irish pototoe) Tendril (morningglory) |
| What are the defining characteristics of tubers (stem modification)? | *Swollen tip of rhizome. *Specialized for storage. *Important in vegetative reproduction. *Example is the irish potatoe. |
| Where do rhizomes arise from? | Axillary buds lead to rhizomes which then lead to tubers. |
| What are the defining characteristics of corms (stem modifications)? | *Underground stem. *Upright and vertical. *Not attached to rhizomes. *Short internodes with scale leaves at nodes. *Specialized for storage. *Have contractile roots that pull corm deep into ground*examples are crocus, gladiolus, taro, kohlrabi. |
| What are the defining characteristics of bulbs (stem modifications)? | *Large underground bud. *Made of scaled leaves modified for storage. *Small conical stem (hard area on bottom of onion). *Examples are onion, lily, garlic, tulip, daffodil. *note lateral buds produce a new plant. |
| What are the defining characteristics of vines (stem modifications)? | *Fast growing and highly competitive. *climbing stem. *Great tensile strength (can bend far before breaking). *Not much investment in stem so can reach light cheaply. *Attaches to other plants. |
| What are the defining characteristics of tendrils (stem modifications)? | *Slender coiling structure that aids in support of stems. *Occurs only in angiosperms. Example is cucurbita (pumpkin), boston ivy, virginia creeper. |
| Define prickle | An upgrowth of the cortex and epidermis. It is not a part of the stem and not a modified stem. An example are rose prickles. |
| What are the defining characteristics of thorns (stem modification)? | *Axillary branch. *Occurs at nodes. *A part of the stem. *Located at nodes. |
| What are the defining characteristics of cladophylls (stem modification)? | *Stems that take on the outward structure and function of the leaves. *Green and photosynthetic. *Often has a flower structure within it. *Examples are asparagus and ruscus (butchers broom). *Remember that true leaves have axillary buds. |
| Define a spine? | A modified leaf that is hard, dry and nonphotosynthetic. |
| What are the defining characteristics of xeromorphic plants? | *Modified for dry conditions. *Thick cuticle. *Multiple epidermis. *Thick and fleshy stems (succulent). *Large thin-walled water storing parenchyma cells that lack chloroplasts. * A lot of hairs. Example are cacti. Cacti only grow in the new world. |
| What are the defining characteristics of hydromorphic plants? | *Modified for aquatic conditions. *Aerating tissue is important. *Large air spaces between cells. *Aerenchyma. *Thin epidermis. *May have channels in cortex or pith. Example is water lily. |
| What type of cells of the stem pith and cortex store various substances? | Parenchyma cells. |
| Where is the vascular cambium of the shoot? | A single layer of cells between the primary phloem and primary xylem. Arises from procambium and from interfascicular cambium. |
| What happens to the primary xylem and phloem of the stem during internode elongation? | They are usually stretched and frequently destroyed. After internodal elongation phloem fibers develop of schlerenchyma cells. |
| What is the difference between mucigel and mucilage? | Mucigel is the slimy sheath that covers mroot tips. Mucilage is a slimy carbohydrate that lines open ducts in the cortex of shoots. |
| Define closed vascular bundle of shoots? | *Found in monocots. *No procambium is retained as xylem and phloem mature; therefore, a vascular cambium does not develop. *Bundles are entirely surrounded byh sheath of sclerenchyma cells. |
| What order and direction do xylem and phloem differentiate in shoots? | Phloem differentiates first on the inside and then on the outside. Xylem differentiates first on the outside and then on the inside. |
| Define open vascular bundle | *Eudicots only. *Vascular bundles give rise to vascular cambium. *Produces secondary vascular tissue. |
| Procambial system of the leaf is continuous with the... | stem |
| Procambial strands of the stem arise just below the developing... | leaf primordium |
| Define leaf trace | That part of a vascular bundle extending from the base of the leaf to its connection with a vascular bundle in the stem. |
| Define leaf trace gap | Region of parenchyma tissue in the primary vascular cylinder of a stem above the point of departure of the leaf trace or traces in seed plants. |
| Define sympodium | The stem bundle and associated leaf traces. |
| Define phyllotaxy | Arrangement of leaves on a stem. |
| What is the most common arrangment of leaves on a stem? | Helical or spiral where one leaf is found at each node. |
| Define opposite leaf arrangement | Leaves in pairs at each node. |
| Define decussate leaf arrangement | Each successive pair is at a right angle to previous pair. Example is coleus or mint. |
| Define whorled leaf arrangement | Three or more leaves at each node. |
| What is another name for the blade of a leaf? | Lamina |
| What are the different leaf arrangments? | Helical or spiral, opposite, decussate, sessile and whorled. |
| Define leaf stipule | Scalelike or leaflike appendage at the base of some leaves. Example, rose leaves. |
| Define leaf sheath | Found in most monocots where the leaf encircles the stem. Grass sheaths extend the length of the internode. |
| Define simple leaves | Blades are not divided into distinct parts. They may be deeply lobed. |
| Define compound leaves | Blades are divided into leaflets. |
| How do you distinguish leaflets from leaves? | 1. Buds are found in the axils of leaves. 2. Leaves extend from the stem in various planes. Leaflets of a given leaf all lie in the same plane. |
| Define pinnately compound leaf | Leaflets arise from either side of an axis (rachis - extension of petiole). |
| Define palmately compound leaf | Leaflets diverge from the tip of the petiole. |
| Define petiolule | Petiole of the leaflet. |
| Define mesophytes | Plants with typical leaves that grow in an environment that is neither too wet nor too dry. |
| Define hydrophytes | Plants that grow in very wet conditions and may even be submerged in water. Stomata on upper surface of leaves only. |
| Define xerophytes | Plants adapted to arid conditions. Stomata on undersurface of leaves and sunken into depressions. Leaves also have very thick cuticles. |
| Describe the monocot stomata arrangement | Stomata are arranged in parallel with the long axis of the leaf. They form at the tip and progress downward toward the base. |
| Describe the dicot stomata arrangement | Random |
| What is mesophyll | leaf ground tissue with palisade and spongy parenchyma cells and a large volume of intercellular spaces connected to atmosphere through stomata. |
| What are the defining characteristics of palisade parenchyma? | *Found in leaf mesophyll. *Columnar with axis at right angles to epidermis. *Location for most photosynthesis in leaf. *Usually found in upper surface of leaves. *Greater surface area than spongy parenchyma. *more chloroplasts. |
| What are the defining characteristics of spongy parenchyma? | *Found in the leaf mesophyll. *Irregular in shape. *Usually found in the lower surface of the leaves. |
| What are leaf veins? | Vascular bundles that are continuous with vascular system of stems. |
| Describe netted or reticulated venation. | The largest vein extends along the axis as midvein. Smaller veins branch from larger veins. Found in dicots. |
| Define midrib | Midvein and associated ground tissue. |
| Describe parallel venation | Found in monocots. Many veins of fairly similar size extend along the axis. Longitudinal veins are interconnected by smaller veins. |
| Where is primary xylem and phloem located in the leaf veins? | Xylem on the upperside and phloem on the lower side. |
| Which veins collect the photosynthates? | minor veins that are completly embedded in mesophyll tissue. |
| Which veins transport photosynthates out of leaves? | Major veins associated with ribs on underside of leaves. |
| What is the purpose of vein bundle sheaths? | To protect vascular tissue from being exposed to air. |
| All substances entering and leaving the vascular tissue of the veins must pass through the... | Bundle sheath |
| What is the purpose of the bundle sheath extensions? | The bundle sheath extensions are a panel of cells that connect the bundle sheath with either or both the upper and lower epidermis. They provide leaf support and conduct water from the xylem to the epidermis. |
| What is the stelar theory? | The central area of the stem is a morphological unit of the plant body combining vascular tissue and the associated ground tissue. The primary bodies of the stems and roots are basically alike. Each central core (stele) enclosed in the cortex. |
| Boundaries that separate the cortex and the stele are easily seen in ...., but not easily seen in....? | The root. The shoot. |
| Define protostele | Solid core of vascular tissue with no central column of pith. |
| Describe protostele - Haplostele | Primary strand of xylem sheathed by cylinder of phloem. |
| Describe protostele - Actinostele | Primary xylem is lobed or star shaped. Found in ranunculus. |
| Describe protostele - plectostele | Xylem seems to consist of seperate plates between and around which phloem occurs. Phloem is always to the outside. |
| Describe siphonostele | A stele with a cylindar of phloem, xylem and a pith. |
| Describe siphonostele - amphipholic | A cylindar of xylem bordered internally and externally by phloem with a pith. Found in ferns. |
| Describe siphonostele - ectopholic | One cylinder of phloem on outside and xylem on the inside. Found in seed plants. |
| Describe siphonostele - dictostele | Interconnected network of vascular strands enclosing a pith column. |
| Describe siphonostele - eustele | Discrete vascular bundles around a pith. Found in eudicots. An example is medicago. |
| Describe collateral phloem | Phloem only on the outside. |
| Describe bicollateral phloem | Internal and external phloem surrounding xylem. An example is curcurbita. |
| Describe siphonostele - atactostele | Found in monocots. Scattered collateral vascular bundles in ground tissue. |
| What is the main function of leaves? | Photosynthesis |
| Where is a sheath leaf base? | The sheath starts at the node and encircles the stem. I grasses the sheath covers the entire internode. |
| Describe a sessile leaf arrangement | There is no petiole and the blade is attached directly to the stem. |
| How are grass leaves different? | *They are vertical. *Do not have spongy or palisade mesophyll. *Stomates are on both sides. *Veins and bundle sheath are in concentric form. *Bulliform epidermal cells fold and unfold leaves. |
| What all provides support in the leaves? | bundle sheath, bundle sheath extensions, collenchyma under epidermis and around large vein, schlernchyma, slereids. |
| How does sclerenchyma provide support in leaves? | Very common xeromorphic plants to help reduce injury from wilting. Large amounts in monocots. Found as fibers associated with vascular bundles or in separate bundles. Found above and below the vein in grass leaves. |
| Eudicot is to parenchyma as monocot is to.. | sclerenchyma |
| What leaves through the stomates | Water and CO2. |
| Describe a sun leaf. | Smaller, thicker (more palisade mesophyll), more extensive vascular system. |
| Describe a shade leaf. | Larger, thinner, more chlorophyll in cells so they are a dark green color. |
| Define bulliform cells | Large cells in the epidermis of grass leaves that assist with the folding and unfolding of leaves. |
| Describe the Kranz anatomy. | Arrangment of mesophyll and bundle sheath in C4 grass leaves. Bundle sheath cells are concentric layers around vascular bundles and are large parenchyma cells w/ large obvious chloroplasts. There are only 2-4 mesophyll cells btw adjacent bundle sheaths. |
| Do sun or shade leaves have lower photosynthetic rates in high light intenstities? | Shade leaves are not adapted to high light intensities and therefore have lower photosynthetic rates under these conditions. |
| Define abscission. | Normal separation of leaf from the stem. |
| What are the layers of cells called in the leaf abscission zone? | Separation layer and protective layer. |
| What are the defining characteristics of the protective layer? | *Found beneath separation layer. *The cells are highly suberized. *Becomes the leaf scar on the stem. |
| What are the defining characteristics of the separation layer? | *Short cells with poorly developed wall thickenings thaqt make them structurally weak. *Enzymes break down walls of separation layer cells. *Middle lamella weakens and hydrolysis of cellulosic walls occurs. |
| Define founder cells. | Group of cells from the peripheral zone of the apical meristem involved in initiation of leaf primordium. |
| Leaf primordia are initiated by... | the founder cells in the peripheral zone. The founder cells span all three zones of the tunica and corpus including L1, L2, and L3. |
| Define leaf buttress. | An expansion from the founder cells that becomes the leaf primordium. |
| Describe intercalary growth of the leaf. | Cell division and elongation throughout the blade contributes to expansion and increase in leaf length. |
| Dense bands of cells form along the margins of the leaf primordium to form what? | The blade. |
| The central region of the leaf primordium differentiates into what? | The midrib or rachis. |
| What direction does the leaf mature? | From tip to base. The tip of the leaf is the first part to have a complete system of veins. |
| Describe dicot leaf differentiation. | All course or major veins develop upward and or outward towards margins of leaf. Smaller or minor veins initiate at the tip and develop from tip to base of leaf. Procambium differentiates upward into the leaf. |
| Describe monocot leaf differentiation. | Growth is lateral from flanks of developing leaf primordium and completely encircles shoot apex. The primordium aquires a hoodlike appearance. Development of the leaf blade then proceeds in linear manner w/new cells added by basal intercalary meristem. |
| Define ligule. | Found in monocot leaves. A small projection or flap of tissue extending upward from sheath. Sheath growth is late and after blade development. Once ligule develops the boundary between the blade and sheath is visible. |
| Monocot or Eudicot: Stomata arranged in rows. | monocot |
| Monocot or Eudicot: Scattered stomata | Eudicot |
| Monocot or Eudicot: secondary growth is rare | monocot |
| Monocot or Eudicot: True secondary growth with a vascular cambium | Eudicot |
| Monocot or Eudicot: Vascular bundle of the shoot is a complex arrangement without a pith | Monocot |
| Monocot or Eudicot: Primary vascular bundles of the shoot form a ring around a pith. | Eudicot |
| Monocot or Eudicot: Leaf venation is parallel | Monocot |
| Monocot or Eudicot: Leaf venation is netlike or reticulated | Eudicot |
| Monocot or Eudicot: One cotyledon | Monocot |
| Monocot or Eudicot: Two cotyledons | Eudicot |
| Monocot or Eudicot: Pollen is monoaperturate (one pore or furrow) | Monocot |
| Monocot or Eudicot: Pollen is triaperturate (three pores or furrows) | Eudicot |
| Monocot or Eudicot: Flower parts in threes | Monocot |
| Monocot or Eudicot: Flower parts in fours or fives | Eudicot |
| Define protostele | Solid core of vascular tissue with no central column of pith. |
| Describe protostele-haplostele | Primary strand of xylem sheathed by cylinder of phloem. Found in ferns. |
| Describe protostele-actinostele | Xylem lobed or star shaped. Found in ranunculus and psilotom. |
| Describe protostele-plectostele | Xylem seems to consist of separate plates between and around which phloem occurs. |
| In the stele where is phloem and xylem located? | Phloem is always on the outside and xylem is always on the inside. |
| Describe siphonostele | Cylindere of phloem and xylem with a pith. |
| Describe siphonostele-amphiphloic | Cylinder of primary xylem bordered internally and externally by phloem. Found in ferns. |
| Describe siphonostele-ectophloic | One cylinder of phloem on outside and xylem on the inside. Found in seed plants. |
| Describe siphonostele-dictyostele | Interconnected network of vasccular strands enclosing pith column. |
| Describe siphonostele-eustele | Discrete vascular bundles around a pith. Found in medicago. |
| Describe siphonostele-atactostele | Scattered collateral vascular bundles in ground tissue. |
| Monocot or Eudicot: Leaves are either simple or compound | Eudicot |
| Monocot or Eudicot: Vascular bundle has a lot of sclerenchyma | Monocot |
| Monocot or Eudicot: Open vascular bundle (vascular bundle gives rise to cambium and produces secondary growth). | Eudicot |
| Monocot or Eudicot: Closed vascular bundle (no procambium is retained and therefore vascular cambium is not formed to create secondary growth). | Monocot |
| Monocot or Eudicot: Fibrous root system | Monocot |
| Monocot or Eudicot: Taproot system | Eudicot |
| Monocot or Eudicot: Roots have a pith | Monocot |
| Monocot or Eudicot: Roots do not have a pith | Eudicot |
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