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Foils's Midterm
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| advanced industrial democracy | a system in which a democratic government allows citizens a considerable amount of personal freedom and maintains a free-market (though still usually regulated) economy |
| anarchy | the absence of government and laws |
| authoritarian capitalism | a system in which the state allows people economic freedom but maintains stringent social regulations to limit noneconomic behavior |
| authoritarian governments | systems in which the state holds all power over the social order |
| authority | power that is recognized as legitimate |
| capitalist economy | an economic system in which the market determines production, distribution, and price decisions, and property is privately owned |
| citizens | members of a political community with both rights and responsibilities |
| communist democracy | a utopian system in which property is communally owned and all decisions are made democratically |
| democracy | government that vests power in the people |
| divine right of kings | the principle that earthly rulers receive their authority from God |
| economics | production and distribution of a society’s material resources and services |
| elite democracy | a theory of democracy that limits the citizens’ role to choosing among competing leaders |
| government | a system or an organization for exercising authority over a body of people |
| institutions | organizations in which governmental power is exercised |
| laissez-faire capitalism | an economic system in which the market makes all decisions and the government plays no role |
| legitimate | accepted as “right” or proper |
| participatory democracy | a theory of democracy that holds that citizens should actively and directly control all aspects of their lives |
| pluralist democracy | a theory of democracy that holds that citizen membership in groups is the key to political power |
| politics | who gets what, when, and how; a process of determining how power and resources are distributed in a society without recourse to violence |
| popular sovereignty | the concept that the citizens are the ultimate source of political power |
| power | the ability to get other people to do what you want |
| procedural guarantees | government assurance that the rules will work smoothly and treat everyone fairly, with no promise of particular outcomes |
| regulated capitalism | a market system in which the government intervenes to protect rights and make procedural guarantees |
| republic | a government in which decisions are made through representatives of the people |
| rules | directives that specify how resources will be distributed or what procedures govern collective activity |
| social contract | the notion that society is based on an agreement between government and the governed in which people agree to give up some rights in exchange for the protection of others |
| social democracy | a hybrid system combining a capitalist economy and a government that supports equality |
| social order | the way we organize and live our collective lives |
| socialist economy | an economic system in which the state determines production, distribution, and price decisions and property is government owned |
| subjects | individuals who are obliged to submit to a government authority against which they have no rights |
| substantive guarantees | government assurance of particular outcomes or results |
| totalitarian | a system in which absolute power is exercised over every aspect of life |
| asylum | protection or sanctuary, especially from political persecution |
| communitarians | those who favor a strong, substantive government role in the economy and the social order in order so that their vision of a community of equals may be realized |
| conservatives | people who generally favor limited government and are cautious about change |
| economic conservatives | those who favor a strictly procedural government role in the economy and the social order |
| economic liberals | those who favor an expanded government role in the economy but a limited role in the social order |
| ideologies | sets of beliefs about politics and society that help people make sense of their world |
| immigrants | citizens or subjects of one country who move to another country to live or work |
| individualism | belief that what is good for society is based on what is good for individuals |
| liberals | people who generally favor government action and view change as progress |
| libertarians | those who favor a minimal government role in any sphere |
| naturalization | the legal process of acquiring citizenship for someone who has not acquired it by birth |
| normative | describes beliefs or values about how things should be or what people ought to do rather than what actually is |
| political culture | the broad pattern of ideas, beliefs, and values about citizens and government held by a population |
| procedural guarantees | government assurance that the rules will work smoothly and treat everyone fairly, with no promise of particular outcomes |
| refugees | individuals who flee an area or a country because of persecution on the basis of race, nationality, religion, group membership, or political opinion |
| social conservatives | those who endorse limited government control of the economy but considerable government intervention to realize a traditional social order; based on religious values and hierarchy rather than equality |
| social liberals | those who favor greater control of the economy and the social order to bring about greater equality and to regulate the effects of progress |
| values | central ideas, principles, or standards that most people agree are important |
| Anti-Federalists | advocates of states’ rights who opposed the Constitution |
| Articles of Confederation | the first constitution of the United States (1777) creating an association of states with weak central government |
| Bill of Rights | a summary of citizen rights guaranteed and protected by a government; added to the Constitution as its first ten amendments in order to achieve ratification |
| Common Sense | 1776 pamphlet by Thomas Paine that persuaded many Americans to support the Revolutionary cause |
| confederation | a government in which independent states unite for common purpose but retain their own sovereignty |
| constitution | the rules that establish a government |
| Constitutional Convention | the assembly of fifty-five delegates in the summer of 1787 to recast the Articles of Confederation; the result was the U.S. Constitution |
| Declaration of Independence | the political document that dissolved the colonial ties between the United States and Britain |
| factions | groups of citizens united by some common passion or interest and opposed to the rights of other citizens or to the interests of the whole community |
| federalism | a political system in which power is divided between the central and regional units |
| Federalists | supporters of the Constitution who favored a strong central government |
| The Federalist Papers | a series of essays written to build support for ratification of the Constitution |
| feudalism | a social system in which a rigid social and political hierarchy was based on the ownership of land |
| French and Indian War | a war fought between France and England, and allied Indians, from 1754 to 1763; resulted in France’s expulsion from the New World |
| Great Compromise | the constitutional solution to congressional representation: equal votes in the Senate, votes by population in the House |
| New Jersey Plan | a proposal at the Constitutional Convention that congressional representation be equal, thus favoring the small states |
| popular sovereignty | the concept that the citizens are the ultimate source of political power |
| popular tyranny | the unrestrained power of the people |
| ratification | the process through which a proposal is formally approved and adopted by vote |
| Shays’s Rebellion | a grassroots uprising (1787) by armed Massachusetts farmers protesting foreclosures |
| slavery | the ownership, for forced labor, of one people by another |
| Three-fifths Compromise | the formula for counting five slaves as three people for purposes of representation that reconciled northern and southern factions at the Constitutional Convention |
| Virginia Plan | a proposal at the Constitutional Convention that congressional representation be based on population, thus favoring the large states |
| amendability | the provision for the Constitution to be changed, so as to adapt to new circumstances |
| bicameral legislature | legislature with two chambers |
| block grants | federal funds provided for a broad purpose, unrestricted by detailed requirements and regulations |
| categorical grant | federal funds provided for a specific purpose, restricted by detailed instructions, regulations, and compliance standards |
| checks and balances | the principle that allows each branch of government to exercise some form of control over the others |
| concurrent powers | powers that are shared by both the federal and state governments |
| confederal system | a government in which local units hold all the power |
| cooperative federalism | the federal system under which the national and state governments share responsibilities for most domestic policy areas |
| devolution | the transfer of powers and responsibilities from the federal government to the states |
| dual federalism | the federal system under which the national and state governments are responsible for separate policy areas |
| Electoral College | an intermediary body that elects the president |
| enumerated powers of Congress | congressional powers specifically named in the Constitution (Article I, Section 8) |
| executive | the branch of government responsible for putting laws into effect |
| fusion of powers | an alternative to separation of powers, combining or blending branches of government |
| Gibbons v. Ogden | Supreme Court ruling (1824) establishing national authority over interstate business |
| initiative | citizen petitions to place a proposal or constitutional amendment on the ballot, to be adopted or rejected by majority vote, bypassing the legislature |
| judicial power | the power to interpret laws and judge whether a law has been broken |
| judicial review | power of the Supreme Court to rule on the constitutionality of laws |
| legislative supremacy | an alternative to judicial review, the acceptance of legislative acts as the final law of the land |
| legislature | the body of government that makes law |
| McCulloch v. Maryland | Supreme Court ruling (1819) confirming the supremacy of national over state government |
| necessary and proper clause | constitutional authorization for Congress to make any law required to carry out its powers |
| nullification | declaration by a state that a federal law is void within its borders |
| parliamentary system | government in which the executive is chosen by the legislature from among its members and the two branches are merged |
| presidential system | government in which the executive is chosen independently of the legislature and the two branches are separate |
| recall elections | votes to remove elected officials from office |
| referendum | an election in which a bill passed by the state legislature is submitted to voters for approval |
| republic | a government in which decisions are made through representatives of the people |
| separation of powers | the institutional arrangement that assigns judicial, executive, and legislative powers to different persons or groups, thereby limiting the powers of each |
| supremacy clause | constitutional declaration (Article VI) that the Constitution and laws made under its provisions are the supreme law of the land |
| unfunded mandate | a federal order mandating that states operate and pay for a program created at the national level |
| unicameral legislature | a legislature with one chamber |
| unitary system | government in which all power is centralized |
| accommodationists | supporters of government nonpreferential accommodation of religion |
| bad tendency test | rule used by the courts that allows speech to be punished if it leads to punishable actions |
| bills of attainder | laws under which specific persons or groups are detained and sentenced without trial |
| civil liberties | individual freedoms guaranteed to the people primarily by the Bill of Rights |
| civil rights | citizenship rights guaranteed to the people (primarily in the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, Fifteenth, Nineteenth, and Twenty-sixth Amendments) and protected by the government |
| clear and present danger test | rule used by the courts that allows language to be regulated only if it presents an immediate and urgent danger |
| compelling state interest | a fundamental state purpose, which must be shown before the law can limit some freedoms or treat some groups of people differently |
| due process of the law | guarantee that laws will be fair and reasonable and that citizens suspected of breaking the law will be treated fairly |
| establishment clause | the First Amendment guarantee that the government will not create and support an official state church |
| ex post facto laws | laws that criminalize an action after it occurs |
| exclusionary rule | rule created by the Supreme Court that evidence seized illegally may not be used to obtain a conviction |
| fighting words | speech intended to incite violence |
| free exercise clause | the First Amendment guarantee that citizens may freely engage in the religious activities of their choice |
| freedom of assembly | the right of the people to gather peacefully and to petition government |
| habeas corpus | the right of an accused person to be brought before a judge and informed of the charges and evidence against him or her |
| imminent lawless action test | rule used by the courts that restricts speech only if it is aimed at producing or is likely to produce imminent lawless action |
| incorporation | Supreme Court action making the protections of the Bill of Rights applicable to the states |
| Lemon test | three-pronged rule used by the courts to determine whether the establishment clause is violated |
| libel | written defamation of character |
| Miller test | rule used by the courts in which the definition of obscenity must be based on local standards |
| police power | the ability of the government to protect its citizens and maintain social order |
| political correctness | the idea that language shapes behavior and therefore should be regulated to control its social effects |
| prior restraint | censorship of or punishment for the expression of ideas before the ideas are printed or spoken |
| sedition | speech that criticizes the government |
| selective incorporation | incorporation of rights on a case-by-case basis |
| separationists | supporters of a “wall of separation” between church and state |
| affirmative action | a policy of creating opportunities for members of certain groups as a substantive remedy for past discrimination |
| black codes | a series of laws in the post–Civil War South designed to restrict the rights of former slaves before the passage of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments |
| boycott | refusal to buy certain goods or services as a way to protest policy or force political reform |
| Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka | Supreme Court case that rejected the idea that separate could be equal in education |
| busing | achieving racial balance by transporting students to schools across neighborhood boundaries |
| civil rights | citizenship rights guaranteed to the people (primarily in the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, Fifteenth, Nineteenth, and Twenty-sixth Amendments) and protected by the government |
| de facto discrimination | discrimination that is the result not of law but rather of tradition and habit |
| de jure discrimination | discrimination arising from or supported by the law |
| English-only movements | efforts to make English the official language of the United States |
| Equal Rights Amendment | constitutional amendment passed by Congress but never ratified that would have banned discrimination on the basis of gender |
| grandfather clauses | provisions exempting from voting restrictions the descendants of those able to vote in 1867 |
| intermediate standard of review | standard of review used by the Court to evaluate laws that make a quasisuspect classification |
| literacy tests | tests requiring reading or comprehension skills as a qualification for voting |
| Jim Crow laws | southern laws designed to circumvent the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments and to deny blacks rights on bases other than race |
| minimum rationality test | standard of review used by the Court to evaluate laws that make a nonsuspect classification |
| National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) | an interest group founded in 1910 to promote civil rights for African Americans |
| Plessy v. Ferguson | Supreme Court case that established the constitutionality of the principle “separate but equal” |
| poll taxes | taxes levied as a qualification for voting |
| racism | institutionalized power inequalities in society based on the perception of racial differences |
| Reconstruction | the period following the Civil War during which the federal government took action to rebuild the South |
| segregation | the practice and policy of separating races |
| sexual harassment | unwelcome sexual speech or behavior that creates a hostile work environment |
| strict scrutiny | a heightened standard of review used by the Supreme Court to assess the constitutionality of laws that limit some freedoms or that make a suspect classification |
| suspect classification | classification, such as race, for which any discriminatory law must be justified by a compelling state interest |
| allocative representation | congressional work to secure projects, services, and funds for the represented district |
| bicameral legislature | legislature with two chambers |
| casework | legislative work on behalf of individual constituents to solve their problems with government agencies and programs |
| cloture | a vote to end a Senate filibuster; requires a three-fifths majority, or sixty votes |
| coattail effect | the added votes received by congressional candidates of a winning presidential party |
| conference committees | temporary committees formed to reconcile differences in House and Senate versions of a bill |
| congressional oversight | a committee’s investigation of the executive and of government agencies to ensure they are acting as Congress intends committees, to monitor agency rule making, enforcement, and implementation of congressional policies |
| constituency | the voters in a state or district |
| descriptive representation | the idea that an elected body should mirror demographically the population it represents |
| filibuster | a practice of unlimited debate in the Senate in order to prevent or delay a vote on a bill |
| franking | the privilege of free mail service provided to members of Congress |
| gerrymandering | redistricting to benefit a particular group |
| House Rules Committee | the committee that determines how and when debate on a bill will take place |
| hyperpartisanship | a commitment to party so strong it can transcend other commitments |
| incumbency advantage | the electoral edge afforded to those already in office |
| joint committees | combined House-Senate committees formed to coordinate activities and expedite legislation in a certain area |
| legislative agenda | the slate of proposals and issues that representatives think it worthwhile to consider and act on (7) |
| majority party | the party with the most seats in a house of Congress |
| midterm loss | the tendency for the presidential party to lose congressional seats in off-year elections |
| national lawmaking | the creation of policy to address the problems and needs of the entire nation |
| norms | informal rules that govern behavior in Congress |
| omnibus legislation | a large bill that contains so many important elements that members can’t afford to defeat it and the president can’t afford to veto it, even if the bill contains elements they dislike |
| partisan gerrymandering | process by which districts are drawn to maximize the number of House seats a political party can win |
| partisanship | loyalty to a party that helps shape how members see the world, define problems, and identify appropriate solutions |
| party polarization | greater ideological (liberal versus conservative) differences between the parties and increased ideological consensus within the parties |
| pocket veto | presidential authority to kill a bill submitted within ten days of the end of a legislative session by not signing it |
| polarization | the ideological distance between the parties and the ideological homogeneity within them |
| policy entrepreneurship | practice of legislators becoming experts and taking leadership roles in specific policy areas |
| policy representation | congressional work to advance the issues and ideological preferences of constituents |
| pork barrel | public works projects and grants for specific districts paid for by general revenues |
| racial gerrymandering | redistricting to enhance or reduce the chances that a racial or ethnic group will elect members to the legislature |
| representation | the efforts of elected officials to look out for the interests of those who elect them |
| reapportionment | a reallocation of congressional seats among the states every ten years, following the census |
| redistricting | process of dividing states into legislative districts |
| roll call votes | publicly recorded votes on bills and amendments on the floor of the House or the Senate |
| select committee | a committee appointed to deal with an issue or problem not suited to a standing committee |
| seniority system | the accumulation of power and authority in conjunction with the length of time spent in office |
| Speaker of the House | the leader of the majority party who serves as the presiding officer of the House of Representatives |
| standing committees | permanent committees responsible for legislation in particular policy areas |
| strategic politicians | office-seekers who base the decision to run on a rational calculation that they will be successful |
| symbolic representation | efforts of members of Congress to stand for American ideals or to identify with common constituency values |
| veto override | reversal of a presidential veto by a two-thirds vote in both houses of Congress |
| cabinet | a presidential advisory group selected by the president, made up of the vice president, the heads of the federal executive departments, and other high officials to whom the president elects to give cabinet status |
| chief administrator | the president’s executive role as the head of federal agencies and the person responsible for the implementation of national policy |
| chief of staff | the person who oversees the operations of all White House staff and controls access to the president |
| Council of Economic Advisers | organization within the EOP that advises the president on economic matters |
| chief foreign policy maker | the president’s executive role as the primary shaper of relations with other nations |
| commander-in-chief | the president’s role as the top officer of the country’s military establishment |
| cycle effect | the predictable rise and fall of a president’s popularity at different stages of a term in office |
| divided government | political rule split between two parties, in which one controls the White House and the other controls one or both houses of Congress |
| executive agreements | presidential arrangements with another country that create foreign policy without the need for Senate approval |
| Executive Office of the President | collection of nine organizations that help the president with policy and political objectives |
| executive order | clarifications of congressional policy issued by the president and having the full force of law |
| going public | the apolitical, unifying role of the president as symbolic representative of the whole country |
| head of government | the political role of the president as leader of a political party and chief arbiter of who gets what resources |
| head of state | the apolitical, unifying role of the president as symbolic representative of the whole country |
| honeymoon period | the time following an election when a president’s popularity is high and congressional relations are likely to be productive |
| impeachment | a formal charge by the House that the president (or another member of the executive branch) has committed acts of “Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors,” which may or may not result in removal from office |
| inherent powers | presidential powers implied but not explicitly stated in the Constitution |
| legislative liaison | executive personnel who work with members of Congress to secure their support in getting a president’s legislation passed |
| National Security Council (NSC) | the organization within the Executive Office of the President that provides foreign policy advice to the president |
| Office of Management and Budget | organization within the Executive Office of the President that oversees the budgets of departments and agencies |
| pardoning power | a president’s authority to release or excuse a person from the legal penalties of a crime |
| power to persuade | a president’s ability to convince Congress, other political actors, and the public to cooperate with the administration’s agenda |
| presidential style | image projected by the president that represents how he would like to be perceived at home and abroad |
| presidential veto | a president’s authority to reject a bill passed by Congress; may be overridden only by a two-thirds majority in each house |
| senatorial courtesy | tradition of granting senior senators of the president’s party considerable power over federal judicial appointments in their home states |
| signing statements | statements recorded along with signed legislation clarifying the president’s understanding of the constitutionality of the bill |
| solicitor general | Justice Department officer who argues the government’s cases before the Supreme Court |
| State of the Union address | a speech given annually by the president to a joint session of Congress and to the nation announcing the president’s agenda |
| treaties | formal agreements with other countries; negotiated by the president and requiring approval by two-thirds of the Senate |
| White House Office | the approximately four hundred employees within the Executive Office of the President who work most closely and directly with the president |
| accountability | the principle that bureaucratic employees should be answerable for their performance to supervisors, all the way up the chain of command |
| agency capture | process whereby regulatory agencies come to be protective of and influenced by the industries they were established to regulate |
| bureaucracy | an organization characterized by hierarchical structure, worker specialization, explicit rules, and advancement by merit |
| bureaucratese | the often unintelligible language used by bureaucrats to avoid controversy and lend weight to their words |
| bureaucratic culture | the accepted values and procedures of an organization |
| bureaucratic discretion | bureaucrats’ use of their own judgment in interpreting and carrying out the laws of Congress |
| citizen advisory councils | citizen groups that consider the policy decisions of an agency; a way to make the bureaucracy responsive to the general public |
| civil service | nonmilitary employees of the government who are appointed through the merit system |
| clientele groups | groups of citizens whose interests are affected by an agency or a department and who work to influence its policies |
| congressional oversight | a committee’s investigation of the executive and of government agencies to ensure they are acting as Congress intends; efforts by Congress, especially through committees, to monitor agency rule making, enforcement, and implementation of congressional poli |
| department | one of the major subdivisions of the federal government, represented in the president’s cabinet |
| Federal Register | publication containing all federal regulations and notifications of regulatory agency hearings |
| Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) | 1966 law that allows citizens to obtain copies of most public records |
| government corporations | companies created by Congress to provide to the public a good or service that private enterprise cannot or will not profitably provide |
| Hatch Act | 1939 law limiting the political involvement of civil servants in order to protect them from political pressure and keep politics out of the bureaucracy |
| independent agencies | government organizations independent of the departments but with a narrower policy focus |
| independent regulatory boards and commissions | government organizations that regulate various businesses, industries, or economic sectors |
| iron triangles | the phenomenon of a clientele group, congressional committee, and bureaucratic agency cooperating to make mutually beneficial policy |
| issue networks | complex systems of relationships between groups that influence policy, including elected leaders, interest groups, specialists, consultants, and research institutes |
| neutral competence | the principle that bureaucracy should be depoliticized by making it more professional |
| patronage | system in which successful party candidates reward supporters with jobs or favors |
| Pendleton Act | 1883 civil service reform that required the hiring and promoting of civil servants to be based on merit, not patronage |
| Privacy Act of 1974 | a law that gives citizens access to the government’s files on them |
| red tape | the complex procedures and regulations surrounding bureaucratic activity |
| regulations | limitations or restrictions on the activities of a business or an individual |
| spoils system | the nineteenth-century practice of rewarding political supporters with public office |
| sunshine laws | legislation opening the process of bureaucratic policymaking to the public |
| whistleblowers | individuals who publicize instances of fraud, corruption, or other wrongdoing in the bureaucracy |
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