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Biology Exam 2
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| adenine/thymine and guanine/cytosine | Give an example of a DNA base pair, i.e. using the letters write the two that are complementary in a base pair |
| two | How many DNA molecules are in a replicated chromosome? |
| tRNA | What molecule delivers amino acids to ribosomes? |
| DNA polymerase | What is the enzyme that joins free nucleotides to form a new strand of DNA? |
| DNA polymerase | What enzyme replicates DNA? |
| codon | A triplet of mRNA nucleotides complementary to the code of DNA is called a |
| pyruvate | In glycolysis, glucose is split into two molecules of 3 carbons each. Each 3 carbon molecule is a carbohydrate named: |
| carbon dioxide | The Krebs cycle produces ___________, a respiratory gas. |
| electron | NADH is known as a(n) _______________carrier. |
| Aa | Using the first letter of the alphabet, write a heterozygous genotype |
| cytoplasm | where does glycolosis occur in the cell? |
| mitochondria | where does the Kreb's cycle occur in the cell? |
| mitochondria | where does ETP occur in the cell? |
| respiration | glycolosis, kreb's cycle, and ETP are all part of cellular ______________ |
| glycolosis | Which stage occurs without the need for O2? |
| ETP | Cellular respiration produces ATP. Which of the three stages of cellular respiration produces the most ATP? |
| it joins with dioxygen and becomes part of a water molecule (Z scheme) | ETP passes electrons to lower energy states produces ATP along the way. What happens to the “spent” electron at the end of the ETP? |
| lactate and alcoholic | What are the two types of fermentation in anaerobic cellular respiration? |
| alcoholic | Which produces CO2: lactate or alcoholic fermentation? |
| pyruvate | What molecule is the starting molecule (first reactant) in both alcoholic and lactate fermentation? |
| zero | How many ATP are produced in fermentation (the conversion of pyruvate that frees electron carriers needed for the continuation of glycosis)? |
| chromatids | Just prior to cell division, each chromosome is comprised of two identical parts called __________. |
| False | Two homologous chromosomes occur together in haploid cells (T/F) |
| False | Two homologous chromosomes carry different genes (T/F) |
| True | Two homologous chromosomes carry different alleles (T/F) |
| False | Two homologous chromosomes are the same as two sister chromatids (T/F) |
| True | Two homologous chromosomes are found in the zygote (T/F) |
| False | Two homologous chromosomes:Are found in a gamete cell (T/F) |
| False | Two homologous chromosomes are morphologically different (T/F) |
| DNA may replicate, cell is very active/not resting | What happens in a cell during the period of the cell cycle called “interphase”? |
| meiosis | What type of cell division accomplishes the task of separating the paired factors that Mendel used as part of his explanation for inheritance? |
| meiosis and fertilization | Sexual reproduction for microscopic algae and humans alike, requires what to processes? |
| meiosis on the outside and fertilization on the inside | How are these processes reflected in a Punnett Square? “AA” parent crossed with “aa” parent |
| homologous chromosomes at the start of meiosis | During meiosis, what and when is synapsis? |
| codominant = one does not dominate the other | What type of interaction do the “A” allele and “B” allele have in determining blood type? |
| assist in peptide bond formation between amino acids | Which of the two is a key function of ribosomes? Assist in peptide bond formation between amino acids. Aid the union between anticodons and the DNA template strand. |
| polygenic | Most human traits are under what type of genetic influence? |
| 46 | how many chromosomes in the human body? |
| respiration | Breathing (gas exchange: CO2 & O2) |
| cellular respiration | extracting energy from carbohydrates |
| ATP | Adenosine triphosphate |
| ATP | supplies the energy that powers the human heart, the flick of a finger, & the action of an enzyme’s active site |
| ATP | breaks apart when giving energy |
| ADP & P | ATP breaks into ____________ releasing energy in the process |
| energy source | An _______________ is needed to put ATP back together again |
| carbohydrates | Much of the energy that is needed to put ATP back together comes from electrons removed from ________________ |
| Electron Carriers | take electrons from carbohydrates and deliver them to a process that forms ATP |
| NAD+ (becoming NADH) | picks up electrons |
| NADH (becoming NAD+) | delivers electrons |
| Cellular Respiration | releases the energy of carbohydrates producing ATP |
| 36 | how many ATP does 1 glucose yield? |
| glycolysis, krebs cycle, and ETP | Three stages of Aerobic Respiration |
| glycolysis | stage of aerobic respiration that occurs in cytoplasm |
| glycolysis | Splits glucose into 2 pyruvate molecules |
| krebs cycle | Pyruvate moves into mitochondria where __________ occurs |
| electron carriers (NADH, FADH2) | pickup electrons |
| ETP | Requires electrons delivered by carriers from Glycolysis & Krebs Cycle |
| ETP | Requires O2 as final electron acceptor |
| ETP | Produces H2O when O2 + H+ accept electrons |
| ETP | Produces greatest ATP yield [32] as electrons passed to lower energy state. |
| Glycolysis and Fermentation | two stages of anaerobic cellular respiration |
| glycolysis | stage of anaerobic cellular respiration that produces ATP |
| fermentation | stage of anaerobic cellular respiration that does not produce ATP |
| fermentation | process removes electrons from electron carriers |
| lactate fermentation (animals) | Pyruvate converted to lactate |
| alcohol fermentation (yeast and plants) | Pyruvate converted to CO2 + alcohol |
| fermentation | restores electron carriers needed for glycolysis |
| chromosomes | Where is DNA found? |
| chromosomes | “colored bodies” –of DNA & Protein |
| each chromatid | a long DNA wound around histone proteins |
| karyotype | image of chromosomes arranged by size & shape |
| Autosomes | all Chromosomes but sex chromosomes; we have 22 pairs |
| Sex Chromosomes | 1 pair, relate to sex, but carry genes for nonsexual traits |
| homologous chromosomes | 2 of same kind; same size, shape, & carry same sequence of genes; one inherited from each parent |
| A Set of Chromosomes | one of each different kind |
| 23, 2, 46 | how many kinds of chromosomes in human ♀? – Each cell w/ ? of each kind, ?? total |
| 23, 46 | You inherited one set of ?? chromosomes from each parent for a total of ?? |
| haploid | one set of chromosomes |
| diploid | two sets of chromosomes |
| ploidy | # sets of chromosomes |
| James Watson & Francis Crick 1953 | discovered the DNA double helix |
| Adenine | —Thymine |
| Cytosine | —Guanine |
| Guanine | —Cytosine |
| Thymine | —Adenine |
| DNA | double stranded, ladder-like. base pairs are the “rungs” |
| DNA Replication (zipper illustration) | 1. The sides of DNA pull apart 2. DNA polymerase joins free nucleotides with exposed strands 3. Each double stranded DNA produced is in its own chromatid |
| cloning | Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer |
| cloning | 1. Nucleus is removed from an egg 2. Somatic (body) cell injected into egg 3. An electrical current causes the injected cell to release its nucleus (the egg now behaves as if it’s been fertilized) 4. Egg divides, becomes an embryo clone |
| gene | segment of DNA that codes for an RNA or Protein |
| alleles | Alternative forms of a gene |
| Proteins (gene products) | make one cell different from another even if the cells are genetic clones |
| homeotic genes | Control body part formation, Ex. Tinman gene – gene for making a heart |
| Amino acids | building blocks of proteins |
| protein synthesis | gene expression |
| Transcription | part of protein synthesis found in the nucleus |
| translation | part of protein synthesis found in cytoplasm |
| transcription | Produces messenger RNA (mRNA) – single stranded nucleic acid consisting of: A, U, C, G - Uracil replaces Thymine |
| mRNA | is complementary to DNA, made in the nucleus & moves to cytoplasm |
| codons | triplets of mRNA nucleotides; complementary to DNA code |
| translation | requires ribosomes, two subunits make one ribosome |
| mRNA | exits the nucleus and enters ribosomes |
| translation | requires Transfer RNA (tRNA) |
| tRNA molecule | has an exposed anticodon sequence at one end and carries an amino acid at the other end |
| tRNA | delivers specific amino acids to ribosomes & more specifically to the mRNA contained within the ribosome |
| translation | mRNA codons translated into a polymer of amino acids, i.e. a protein |
| hemoglobin | example of a mutated gene |
| gene mutation | change in DNA base sequence |
| Harmful radiation (X-Rays, UV), Chemicals, Viruses, during DNA Replication | how do gene mutations arise? |
| Growth, Repair, Replacement, Sexual reproduction, Asexual reproduction | why cells divide |
| 1. interphase 2. cell division | the life of a cell, the cell cycle |
| interphase | when cell is not dividing; cell grows larger & is very active, ex. muscle cells contract; gland cells secrete – If cell is to divide, DNA is synthesized & chromosome duplicate |
| cell division | mitosis or meiosis |
| neoplasms (tumors) | an accumulation of abnormally dividing cells; develop if cell cycle control genes fail. |
| benign | cells adhere |
| malignant | cells migrate |
| mitosis | clonal cell division as chromosomes Condense, Align, Separate, & Decondense |
| meiosis | a diploid cell divides forming four haploid cells; requires 2 divisions; chromosome # is halved |
| Meiosis I, 1st division | First division is ___________; 1 diploid cell divides producing 2 haploid cells; Synapsis and Crossing over occur |
| synapsis | physical pairing of homologous chromosomes |
| crossing over (happens during synapsis) | exchange of DNA between non sister chromatids— a source of genetic variation |
| Meiosis II, 2nd division | each haploid cell divides once, 4 cells result |
| Meiosis I | homologous chromosomes pair (synapse) then separate |
| Meiosis II | sister chromatids separate |
| crossing over and independent assortment | why are daughter cells of meiosis not genetically identical |
| genotype | combination of alleles for the gene pair |
| AA | homozygous genotype |
| Bb | heterozygous genotypetype |
| meiosis | necessary to produce haploid gametes |
| fertilization | (fusion of gametes) restores the diploid condition in the zygote |
| mitosis | In humans, the zygote divides by ___________ producing the next person |
| mitosis | somatic (body) cells & embryos |
| meiosis | gonad cells producing gametes |
| Gregor Mendel | father of genetics; garden pea heredity |
| gene segregation | pairs of genes segregate when homologous chromosomes separate during Meiosis |
| fertilization | Pairs of genes recombine by _____________ |
| sexual reproduction | meiosis and fertilization |
| phenotype | individuals observable traits |
| environment and genes | What determines phenotype? |
| complete dominance | heterozygotes have dominant phenotype |
| incomplete dominance | heterozygotes have intermediate phenotype |
| codominance | Heterozygotes have both phenotypes |
| Polygenic inheritance (epistasis) | when multiple gene pairs influence a trait |
| abnormal hemoglobin | has 1 amino acid different from normal hemoglobin & RBC cells collapse |
| HbAHbA | normal heboglobin |
| HbAHbS | sickle cell trait |
| HbSHbS | sickle cell disease |
| ostinato |
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pace_sauce
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