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Nutrition A & P
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Major nutrients? | carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals & water |
| Essential nutrients? | nutrients that cannot be synthesized by chemical reactions inthe body, & must be obtained from the diet |
| Nutrient? | substance in food that is used by the body to promote normal growth,maintenance & repair |
| Diet sources to obtain CARBS? | sugars from fruits, sugar (cane), honey, milk; starch from grains,vegetables; cellulose from most plants (cellulose is indigestible = fiber) |
| CARBs are used by the body for what purposes? | glucose is major body fuel; used to make ATP (other sugarssuch as fructose & galactose are converted to glucose by liver) |
| Dietary requirements of CARBS? | 200-300 grams/day recommended (40% of total calories) |
| Dietary sources to obtain LIPIDS? | saturated fats in meats & dairy products (& some plants);unsaturated fats in seeds, nuts & vegetable oils; cholesterol in egg yolks, milkproducts, meats |
| LIPIDS are used by the body for what purposes? | fats help the body absorb fat-soluble vitamins; triglycerides aremajor source of energy for hepatocytes & skeletal muscle; phospholipids used tosynthesize cellular membranes; fats used as cushioning & insulation in adiposetissue; cholesterol used in |
| Dietary requirements of LIPIDS? | fats should represent 30% or less of total calories;saturated fats should be 10% or less of total fats; less than 200 mg/day cholesterol |
| Dietary sources to obtain PROTEINS? | eggs, milk & most meats are complete proteins (contain allessential amino acids); vegetables must be used in combination to obtain allessential amino acids (cereal grains and legumes) |
| PROTEINS are used by the body for what purposes? | functional proteins regulate most chemical reactions in cells;structural proteins important for skin, connective tissue fiber & musclecontraction; energy source only if in excess or insufficient carbs or fats |
| Dietary requirements of PROTEINS? | 0.8 g/kg body weight recommended (~ 55 g/day for a 150 lb. Individual) |
| Are vitamins used for energy; True or false? | False |
| Vitamins are critical for energy producing reactions. T or F | True |
| Another name for vitamins? | organic compounds |
| Qnuatity of vitamins needed and for what reasons? | small amounts for growth & metabolism |
| Most vitamins function as what? | coenzymes (assist enzyme in its activity) |
| What act as coenzymes NAD+ & FAD) in oxidativephosphorylation? | B vitamins niacin & riboflavin |
| Most vitamins must be obtained from diet. True or False? | True |
| Most vitamins must be obtained from diet; except for which vitamins? | vitamin D made in theskin, vitamin K & some B vitamins synthesized by intestinal bacteria, & vitaminKevin Kelleher, MTCBiology 211 Study Notes Exam 311A which can be synthesized from beta-carotene (orange-yellow pigment in somevegetables) |
| Water-soluble vitamins are absorbed where? | along with water from GI tract |
| Water-soluble vitamins include what vitamins? | includes vitamin C & the B vitamins |
| Fat-soluble vitamins: bind to what? and are absorbed along with what? | ingested lipids & absorbed along with theirdigestion products |
| Fat-soluble vitamins include which vitamins? | includes vitamins A, D, E & K |
| Vitamin A can be synthesized how? | from beta-carotene (antioxidant in orangevegetables) required for synthesis of visual pigments, normal development of bones, teeth & maintenance of epithelia |
| Vitamin D is required for what? | calcium & phosphorus absorption during digestion |
| Vitamin E is an antioxidant. T or F | True |
| vitamin E prevents oxidation of what? | vitamin A & polyunsaturated fatty acids) |
| Vitamin K is required for blood clotting. T or F | True |
| B vitamins (B1-B12) required for what? | cellular metabolism |
| vitamin C is described as what type of acid? | (ascorbic acid) |
| Vitamin C is required for what? | collagen production, storage of folic acid,& metabolism of some amino acids |
| Vitamin C promotes what? | promotes iron absorption & synthesis ofsteroid hormones |
| Which vitamins are considered antioxidants that neutralize harmful free radicals in body? | vitamins A, C, & E |
| Minerals are used for energy. T or F | False |
| Minerals are used by other nutrients to do what? | carry out necessary cellular reactions |
| What are the 7 minerals required in "MODERATE" amounts by the body? | calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur,sodium, chloride & magnesium (PPCCSS-M) |
| There are several minerals also required in "TRACE" amounts, Name some. | fluorine, iodine, iron, zinc (IF - IZ ) |
| What is metabolism? | all chemical reactions occurring in the body & necessary to maintain life |
| What is anabolism? | reactions that build up molecules (larger molecules are built from smaller molecules) |
| What is catabolism? | reactions that break down molecules (complex structures are broken down into simpler ones) |
| What is an example of catabolism? | example: cellular respiration (food fuels broken down in cells & energy released is captured to make ATP) |
| What is phosphorylation? | addition of a phosphate molecule to another molecule (usually a protein or nucleotide (ADP)) often used to activate a protein or chemical (sometimes used to inactivate) |
| What is oxidation? | the gain of oxygen or the loss of hydrogen (or electrons) |
| What is reduction? | the loss of oxygen or the gain of hydrogen (or electrons) |
| What is oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions? | one molecule is oxidized (loses electrons &energy) while another molecule is reduced (gains electrons & energy) |
| What is dehydrogenases? | enzymes that catalyze transfer of hydrogen |
| What is oxidases? | enzymes that catalyze transfer of oxygenuse coenzymes NAD+ & FAD |
| "Mechanisms of ATP synthesis" What is Substrate-level phosphorylation? | high-energy phosphate transferred directly froma substrate molecule to ADP |
| "Mechanisms of ATP synthesis"What is Oxidative phosphorylation? | a chemiosmotic process where hydrogen ion transportacross the mitochondrial membrane (chemiosmosis) provides the energy requiredfor the enzyme ATP synthase to synthesize ATP from ADP and phosphate |
| "Carbohydrate metabolism"Explain what Oxidation of glucose means? | glucose + oxygen -> water + carbon dioxide + 36 ATP + heat |
| "Carbohydrate metabolism" What is Glycolysis? | glucose broken down to 2 molecules of pyruvic acid |
| What is the Krebs Cycle? | an 8-step cycle that shuffles carbon atoms while oxidizing sugars to reduce NAD+ & FAD |
| Where does the kreb cycle occur? | occurs in the mitochondrial matrix |
| Describe the "Electron Transport Chain & Oxidative Phosphorylation" | NADH &FADH2 are oxidized, & the hydrogen ions removed are sent across the inner mitochondrial membrane while electrons are transported from protein to protein on the inner mitochondrial membrane |
| Define Glycogenesis | when more glucose is available than is needed for energy, glucosemolecules are combined in long chains to form glycogen |
| Define Glycogenolysis | when blood glucose levels drop, glycogen lysis occurs, releasing glucose molecules from glycogen |
| Define Gluconeogenesis | when too little glucose is available, glycerol & amino acids are converted to glucose |
| Gluconeogenesis occurs where? | occurs in liver |
| (neurons & red blood cells) rely almost exclusively on what for energy? | glucose |
| About twice as much energy can be gained from fats as from glucose. T or F | True |
| Most cell types can use fats as an energysource. T or F | True |
| "Oxidation of glycerol & fatty acids" triglycerides are boken down into what? | fatty acids and glycerol; glycerol enters glycolytic pathway while fatty acids areoxidized to acetic acid |
| What is Beta oxidation? | fatty acids oxidized to acetic acid, to which coenzyme A is added & the acetyl coA enters the Krebs cycle |
| Define Lipogenesis. | triglyceride synthesis from acetyl coA & glycerol |
| When does Lipogenesis occur? | occurs when cellular ATP & glucose levels are high (one of the problems with diets very high in sugars/carbohydrates) |
| Define Lipolysis. | breaking of stored fats into fatty acids & glycerol |
| "Oxidation of amino acids" during this process, amino acids are converted to what? | keto acids |
| keto acids can be converted to what? | converted to pyruvic acid & acetyl coA |
| Keto acids which can be converted to pyruvic acid & acetyl coA reqires 3 steps that occur in the liver, what are they? | Transamination, Oxidative deamination, and Keto acid modification |
| What is Transamination? | the transfer of amine group from amino acid to α−ketoglutaric (keto) acid to form glutamic acid |
| What is Oxidative deamination? amine group of glutamic acid is removed asammonia (which is combined with carbon dioxide & excreted as urea inurine) & keto acid | amine group of glutamic acid is removed asammonia (which is combined with carbon dioxide & excreted as urea in urine) & keto acid |
| What is Keto acid modification? | keto acid modified as necessary (to form pyruvic acid, acetyl coA…) to enter energy pathways |
| What is first priority for amino acids absorbed? | Synthesis of Proteins |
| How many essential amino acids must be absorbed through digestive system from food? | eight |
| nonessential amino acids can be synthesized from where? | other molecules in liver |
| organic molecules (proteins, carbohydrates,lipids) are continuously broken down & rebuilt. Name this process | The Catabolic-Anabolic Steady State of Body |
| What is "Nutrient pools" refer to? | the body’s total supply of nutrients |
| Most nutrients are interconvertible. T or F | True |
| Define "amino acid pool" | the body’s total supply of free amino acids; must be converted to carbohydrate to be used for energy. |
| What is the purpose of the "carbohydrate pool"? | can be used directly for energy or stored |
| What is the purpose of the "fat pool"? | can be used directly for energy or stored |
| Define Absorptive State. | the time during & shortly after eating when nutrients are actively being absorbed from GI tract |
| Explain the process of Carbohydrates during the "absorptive state" | absorbed monosaccharides are delivered to liver; fructose & galactose are converted to glucose; glucose is used for energy if necessary & excess is stored in liver as glycogen or converted to fat & stored in adipose tissue |
| Explain the process of Triglycerides during the "absorptive state" | collected in lymph & converted to fatty acids & glycerol; fatty acids & glycerol are used for energy if necessary or converted back to triglycerides & stored in adipose tissue |
| Explain the process of Amino Acids during the "absorptive state" | delivered to liver; remain in blood if needed for protein synthesis;otherwise, amino acids are deaminated to keto acids for use as energy |
| What directs events of the "absorptive state"? | Hormonal control: insulin released by pancreatic islets directs events ofabsorptive state |
| What removes glucose from blood into tissue cells, lowering blood sugar levels? | Insulin |
| What type of hormone is Insulin? | It is primarily a hypoglycemic hormone |
| Deficiency in insulin or malfunctional insulin receptors can lead to what disease? | diabetes mellitus |
| The Postabsorptive state takes place when? | between meals when blood sugar levels are falling |
| The goal ot the "Postabsorptive state" is what? | To maintain blood glucose levels within normal limits (80-100 mg/100 ml) |
| What are some Sources of glucose? | glycogenolysis in liver & skeletal muscle cells; lipolysis in adipose tissue & liver (released glycerol is converted to glucose); catabolism of cellular protein (deamination of amino acids to keto acids & conversion of keto acids to glucose) |
| What is Glucose sparing? | use of noncarbohydrate molecules for fuel to conserve glucose |
| What type of hormone is glucagon? | glucagon released by pancreatic islets is a hyperglycemic hormone |
| What does glucagon do? | it raises blood glucose levels |
| Epinephrine released by sympathetic fibers mobilizes fat stores for what? | for energy & promotes glycogenolysis |
| Hepatocytes carry out many (≥ 500) metabolic functions. T or F | True |
| Cholesterol is used in synthesis of what? | bile salts, steroid hormones, vitamin D &plasma membrane in all cells; also part of embryonic hedgehog protein |
| what is the percentage of cholesterol that comes from diet? | 15% and rest is synthesized from acetyl coA |
| What are (VLDLs) very low density lipoproteins? | transport triglycerides from liverto tissues (primarily adipose tissue) |
| What are (LDLs)low-density lipoproteins? ) | transport cholesterol to tissues (badcholesterol |
| What are (HDLs)high-density lipoproteins? | transports excess cholesterol fromtissues to liver for use in bile salts |
| "Regulation of Food Intake"neural signals consist of what? | vagal nerve fibers communicate between gut & brain |
| "Regulation of Food Intake"nutrient signals do what? | increases in plasma levels of glucose, amino acids, fatty acids & leptin (satiety-related hormone released by adipose tissue) depress eating |
| What are some factors that affect eating habits? | insulin appears to be an important satiety signal, & body temperature & psychological factors affect eating habits |
| Regulation of Body Temperature is controlled by what? | Hypothalamus (thermoregulation) |
| Thermoregulatory centers include what? | heat-loss center & heat-promoting center |
| Heat-promoting mechanisms of the hypothalamus include what things? | vasoconstriction of cutaneous blood vessels (blood rerouted to internal organs)increase in metabolic rate, shivering ntraction of skeletal muscle)enhanced thyroxine release (increases metabolism & heat) |
| Heat-loss mechanisms of the hypothalamus include what things? | vasodilation of cutaneous blood vessels (heat lost through skin), enhanced sweating |
Created by:
martinandmary
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