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Duman 1
Homeostasis, Respiratory, and Cardiovascular
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| internal environment | the extracellular fluid that bathes the cells of a multicellular animal |
| homeostasis | the maintenance of stable conditions, within a narrow range, in the internal environment |
| set point | the reference point for the desired speed/temp/etc... |
| feedback information | the reading supplied about the current state of homeostasis in regards to the set point |
| error signal | the difference between the feedback information and the set point, suggest corrective actions |
| effectors | effect change in the internal environment |
| controlled systems | effectors are controlled systems, they are controlled by commands from regulatory systems |
| regulatory system | obtain, process, and integrate information then issue commands to balance them to control systems |
| sensor | an important part of a regulatory system, provides feedback information that is compared to the set point |
| negative feedback | most common use of sensory information, causes the effectors to reduce or reverse the system that is creating an error signal |
| positive feedback | much more rare than negative, rather than returning to a set point, it amplifies a response |
| feedforward information | changes the set point |
| tissue | assemblage of cells; 4 categories are connective, muscle, nervous, or epithelial |
| epithelial tissue | densely packed, tightly connected, cover inner and outer body surfaces, act as barriers, provide transport when necessary, may be secretory, may have cilia to get things out, may provide info to the NS, filtrate, and absorb stuff |
| muscle tissue | elongated cells that contract to generate forces and cause densely packed, movement, most abundant, three categories: skeletal cardiac and smooth |
| skeletal muscles | under un/conscious control, mostly attached to bones |
| cardiac muscle | makes up the heart, is responsible for heart beat, unconsciously controlled |
| smooth muscle | movement and generation of forces in many hollow internal organs, unconsciously controlled |
| connective tissue | generally dispersed, embedded in a matrix that the cells secrete, |
| collagen | an important protein in the extracellular matrix, most abundant protein in the body, flexible but not stretchy, like a rope |
| elastin | an important protein in the extracellular matrix, very stretchy, has an elastic recoil, abundant in organs that get stretched regularly |
| cartilage | connective tissue full of collagen and chondrocytes, lines joints, flexible and compression resistant |
| bone | connective tissue with lots of collagen, hardened by calcium phosphate |
| adipose tissue | loose connective tissue made of adipose cells, "fat," cushions organs |
| blood as a connective tissue | connective tissue with a matrix called plasma containing many proteins |
| nervous tissues | made up of neurons and glial cells |
| organ system | a group of organs working together to achieve a particular physiological function or set of functions |
| Q10 | measure of temperature sensitivity, Rt/Rt-10 |
| ectotherm | an animal whose body temperature depends on external sources of heat |
| endotherm | an animal that can regulate its body temperature by producing heat or using active mechanisms of heat loss |
| heterotherm | an animal that can behave as both an ecto and an endo therm |
| radiation | heat transfers from warm objects to cool ones via infrared radiation |
| conduction | heat transfers directly when objects of different temperatures come into contact |
| convection | heat transfers to a surrounding medium (such as air or water) as that medium flows over the surface |
| evaporation | heat transfers away from a surface when water evaporates on that surface |
| energy budget | total balance of heat exchange and heat production |
| cold fish | fish whose circulatory systems conduct cool, oxygenated blood from the gills through a large dorsal aorta to the rest of the body |
| hot fish | includes the countercurrent heat exchanger to keep the core of the fish hot |
| countercurrent heat exchanger | heat is exchanged between blood vessels carrying blood in opposite directions for the cold arterial blood is warmed by the venous blood that has been warmed by metabolism of the muscles |
| thermoneutral zone | narrow range of temperatures in which the metabolic rate of endotherms is low and independent of temperature |
| basal metabolic rate (BMR) | the metabolic rate of a resting animal at a temperature within the thermoneutral zone (does not include energy used for digestion, reproduction, or growth) |
| shivering | contractile machinery of skeletal muscles consume ATP without visible behavior except for maybe a small tremor and heat is produced |
| nonshivering heat production | occurs in brown fat |
| brown fat | adipose tissue with a lot of mitochondria and blood vessels, contains the protein thermogenin |
| thermogenin | protein in brown fat that uncouples proton transfer and leaks them into the mitochondrial membrane so that metabolic fuels can be consumed without actually making ATP |
| hypothalamus | "the vertebrate thermostat," key part in several system regulations |
| circadian rhythm | the body's daily cycle of changes in set point |
| pyrogen | substance that causes a rise in body temp called a fever |
| exogenous pyrogens | produced by bacteria or viruses that invade the body |
| endogenous pyrogens | produced by cells of the immune system in response to infection |
| hypothermia | state of below normal body temperature |
| regulated hypothermia | used by some birds and mammals as a way of surviving during periods of cold and food scarcity |
| daily torpor | adaptive hypothermia used by hummingbirds and other small endotherms to save energy when they really don't need to be using it |
| hibernation | regulated hypothermia that goes on for days or even weeks |
| respiratory gases | carbon dioxide and oxygen |
| barometric pressure | atmospheric pressure |
| partial pressure | the portion of the barometric pressure exerted by a particular gas |
| Fick's law of diffusion | Q=DA[(P1-P2)/L] |
| partial pressure gradient | P1-P2/L |
| external gills | highly branched and folded extensions of the body surface that provide a lot of surface area for gas exchange with water |
| which type of gills do larval amphibians and insects have? | external |
| internal gills | gills encased in protective body cavities |
| which type of gills do mollusks, arthropods, and fish have? | internal |
| lungs | internal cavities for respiratory gas exchange with air with a large surface area and high elasticity to accommodate inflation and deflation |
| tracheae | air filled tubes that branch through all tissues of the body |
| ventilation | actively moving the respiratory medium over the gas exchange surface |
| perfusion | circulating blood over the internal side brings CO2 to the surface and O2 away |
| gas exchange system | gas exchange surfaces and mechanisms it uses to ventilate and perfuse the surfaces |
| spiracles | gated openings on the sides of an insect's abdomen that open for gas exchange but close to prevent water loss |
| path of spiracle | spiracle - tracheae - tracheoles - air capillaries |
| gill arches | support internal fish gills |
| opercular flaps | protective flaps on the sides of the fish just behind the eyes |
| unidirectional flow of water in fish | into mouth - over gills - out from under opercular flaps |
| structures of a gill | consists of gill filaments which are covered by evenly spaced folds called lamellae (where gas exchange actually occurs) |
| afferent blood | to the gills |
| efferent blood | away from the gills |
| countercurrent flow | optimizes the oxygen gradient between water and blood, more efficient than parallel flow |
| air sacs | sacs that are interconnected with the lungs, each other, and up into the bone |
| trachea | the windpipe air enters and exits from in birds and mammals |
| bronchi | small airway divisions of the trachea |
| air pathway for birds | trachea-bronchi-parabronchi-air capillaries |
| tidal | air flows in and out in the same route |
| tidal volume | the amount of air that moves in and out per breath |
| inspiratory reserve volume | the additional volume of air we can take in above the tidal volume |
| expiratory reserve volume | the volume of air we can force out |
| vital capacity | tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume + expiratory reserve volume |
| residual volume | air that is always left in the lungs to prevent collapse |
| total lung capacity | residual volume + vital capacity |
| pharynx | where the nasal and oral cavity meet, leads to the larynx |
| larynx | voice box |
| pathway of air in humans | pharynx-larynx-trachea-bronchi-bronchioles-alveoli |
| alveoli | sites of gas exchange, tiny thin walled air sacs |
| surfactant | substance that reduces surface tension of a liquid, in the lungs it is fatty and decreases the work necessary to inflate |
| thoracic cavity | closed body compartment bounded by the diaphragm |
| diaphragm | sheet of muscle necessary for breathing |
| pleural membrane | surround the lungs and the walls of the pleural cavity |
| pleural space | space btwn the lungs and the walls, contains liquid to allow for the organs to rub against each other and the wall |
| external intercostal muscles | expand the thoracic cavity by lifting the ribs up and outward |
| internal intercostal muscles | decrease the volume of the thoracic cavity by pulling the ribs down and inward |
| hemoglobin | protein consisting of 4 polypeptide subunits, each which surround a heme group |
| heme group | iron containing ring structure that can reversibly bind a molecule of O2 |
| positive cooperativity | influence of the binding of one O2 on the oxygen affinity of the other subunits |
| myoglobin | oxygen-binding protein in muscles which has only one subunit, higher affinity for O2 so picks it up from hemoglobin easily |
| alpha/beta | hemoglobin conformation in adults |
| alpha/gamma | fetal hemoglobin conformation that has a higher affinity for oxygen |
| Bohr effect | influence of pH on the function of hemoglobin--as pH falls (say as lactic acid is produced) the hemoglobin will let go of oxygens easier |
| bicarbonate ions | how carbon dioxide is transported to the lungs in the blood |
| carotid and aortic bodies | contain chemoreceptors which sense decrease in bloody supply or if oxygen levels fall dramatically |
| open circulatory system | extracellular fluid squeezes through intercellular as the organism moves (mollusks, arthropods, other invertebrates) |
| ostia | valved openings that return fluid to the heart in arthropods |
| closed circulatory system | system of vessels that keep the interstitial fluid and circulatory fluid separate |
| advantages of closed circ systems | blood flows more rapidly, blood can be selectively delivered by altering the diameter of blood vessels, and certain molecules can be transported around dropping off cargo wherever necessary |
| pulmonary circuit | heart to the lungs and back to the heart |
| systemic circuit | heart to the body to the heart |
| arteries | carry blood away from the heart |
| veins | carry blood back to the heart |
| blood vessel pathway | heart-artery-arteriole-capillary-venule-vein-heart |
| atrium | receives the blood and pumps it to a more muscular chamber |
| ventricle | muscular chamber that pumps blood out of the heart |
| fish circulation? | 2 chambered heart, one ventricle one atrium, very low pressure because there is so much surface area resistance in the gills |
| lung fish circulation? | two atria and one ventricle, an air pocket in the gut, when the water is hypoxic or dried up, blood is directed to the lung for gas exchange instead of the gills |
| amphibian circulation? | 3 chambers, 2 atria 1 ventricle, limited mixing in the ventricle, however pressure can remain high because some blood is pumped into the aorta for direct transport to tissues |
| reptile circulation? | 3 chambered heart (ventricles not completely separated) |
| crocodilian circulation? | 4 chambers, can selectively shunt blood to the pulmonary or systemic circuits through a cnxn between the two aortas. have 2 separate ventricles and depending on whether they are breathing or not, can direct blood either to the lungs or systemic circuit |
| bird and mammal circulation? | 4 chambers, 2 of each, completely separated, no mixing, maximized gas exchange, circuits have different pressures |
| atrioventricular valves | prevent backflow into the atria when the ventricles contract |
| pulmonary and aortic valves | prevent backflow into the ventricles when they relax |
| vena cava | veins that bring all blood back to the heart |
| pulmonary artery | brings deoxygenated blood to the lungs |
| pulmonary veins | brings oxygenated blood to the heart |
| cardiac cycle | systole (contraction of ventricles) and diastole (relaxation of ventricles) |
| pacemaker cells | initiate action potentials without NS stimulation, |
| sinoatrial node | primary pacemaker of the heart, stimulates atrial contraction |
| atrioventricular node | stimulated by atrial contraction, tells the ventricles to contract from the bottom up |
| bundles of His | cardiac muscle fibers that do not contract, receive the stimulus from the AV node and tells ventricles to contract with slight delay, divide into branches |
| Purkinje fibers | branches of the bundles of His that spread throughout the ventricular muscles that cause contraction |
| erythropoetin | hormone secreted by the kidneys in response to low oxygen (hypoxia), stimulates RBC production |
| spleen | organ where RBCs are really squeezed. if they're healthy, they go into reservoirs, if they're old they rupture and get eaten up by macrophages |
| megakaryocytes | large cells that remain in the bone marrow that break off pieces called platelets |
| platelets | tiny fragments of cells without any organelles |
| clotting factors | chemicals which activate other platelets and initiate blood clotting |
| thrombin | transformed from prothrombin, cleaves molcules of fibrinogen |
| fibrin | made from fibrinogen that is cleaved by thrombin, insoluble threads that form a meshwork for clotting |
| fenestrations | tiny holes in capillary walls that allow transport of small molecules |
| Starling's Forces | bp squeezes fluid out of vessels, osmotic pressure pushes fluid back in (colloidal osmotic pressure) |
| edema | too much interstitial fluid, swelling of tissues |
| blood-brain barrier | high selectivity of brain capillaries. no fenestrations |
| Frank-Starling Law | if the cardiac muscles are stretched they contract more forcefully |
| lymphatic system | separate system of vessels that returns interstitial fluid to the blood |
| thoracic ducts | big lymph vessels |
| lymph nodes | places of lymphocyte production and phagocytosis along major lymph vessels |
| artherosclerosis | hardening of the arteries |
| plaque | deposits at places of endothelial damage |
| thrombus | blod clot in a blood vessel caused by things sticking to plaque, can block the vessel or break apart |
| embolus | piece of a thrombus that breaks off and gets lodged in a vessel |
| embolism | blocking of a vessel by an embolus |
| heart attack | a myocardial infarction, caused by a coronary artery embolism |
| stroke | an embolism in the brain |
| precapillary sphincters | smooth muscle around capillaries that can shut off supply to that capillary bed when necessary |
| hyperemia | excess blood |
| nor/epinepherine | sympathetic NS, constrict arteries |
| acetylcholine | parasympathetic NS, vessel dilation |
| angiotensis | produced when bp in the kidneys falls, activated by renin |
| ADH | released by hypothalamus and makes the kidneys reabsorb water, aka vasopressin |
| baroreceptors | stretch sensors in the carotid and aorta that are sensitive to blood pressure |
| diving reflex | relxes that cause the HR to slow, constrict vessels except for those going to the heart, brain, and eyes, etc... |
| hypometabolic | divers have a metabolic rate below the basal one, create an oxygen debt |
Created by:
khildner
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