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Sociology 2
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Social Group | A number of people who have a common identity, some feeling of unity, and certain common goals and shared norms. |
| Primary groups | social group that involves interaction among members who have an emotional investment in one another and in a situation, who know one another intimately, and who interact as total individuals rather than through specialized roles. |
| Secondary groups | social group that is much less intimacy among its members. It usually has specific goals, is formally organized, and is impersonal |
| dyad | Group composed of two members. |
| triad | Group composed of three members. |
| formal organization | Highly structured secondary group formed for the purpose of achieving specific goals |
| Utilitarian Organizations | We voluntarily join because there is the promise of a reward (occupation). |
| Normative Organizations | Socioeconomic status is a determinate of who joins these groups (clubs, politics). |
| Coercive Organizations | People do not become voluntary members of coercive groups |
| A postindustrial society | society in which technology supports a service and information based economy. |
| Bureaucracy | an organizational model rationally designed to perform tasks efficiently. |
| Bureaucratic Alienation | Takes place when organizations dehumanize the people they are suppose to serve Weber recognized that organizations breed alienation. |
| Bureaucratic Inefficiency and Ritualism | Sometimes bureaucracy does not address the real problem, instead following outdated rituals that lead to “red tape.” |
| Bureaucratic Ritualism | a focus on rules and regulations to the point of undermining an organization’s goals. |
| Bureaucratic Inertia | The tendency of bureaucratic organizations to perpetuate themselves |
| Oligarchy | the rule of the many by the few |
| nation-states | A unit of political organization that has recognizable national boundaries and whose citizens possess specific legal rights and obligations |
| intimacy | The most important quality of primary groups that is missing in secondary groups is: |
| anticipatory socialization | Reference groups are a major source of: |
| Max Weber | Who first developed a framework to describe bureaucracies? |
| primary group | Emotion-based interaction over extended period |
| secondary group | Impersonal, goal-oriented relationships for a limited time |
| reference groups | Influences a person’s behavior and attitudes, regardless of whether they are a member |
| Industrial societies | societies based on technology that mechanizes production. |
| Division of Labor | determines our relationships |
| postindustrial societies | Characterized by an economy in which large numbers of people provide or apply information or are employed in service jobs |
| network | a web of weak social ties |
| six key elements of bureaucracy | Specialization; Hierarchy of positions; Rules and regulations; Technical competence; Impersonality; Formal, written communications |
| Robert Michels | who came of with the Iron Law of Oligarchy |
| anticipatory socialization | the process by which knowledge and skills are learned for future rolls |
| Instrumental leadership | is most appropriate when the group’s purpose is to complete a task or reach a particular goal |
| Expressive leadership | is most appropriate when the group is dealing with emotional issues, and harmony, solidarity, and high morale are needed. |
| Authoritarian leaders | make all major group decisions and assign tasks to members. |
| Democratic leaders | encourage group discussion and decision making through consensus building. |
| Laissez-faire leaders | do not provide active leadership. |
| Conformity | The process of maintaining or changing behavior to comply with the norms established by a society, subculture, or other group. |
| groupthink | Irving Janis developed an influential theory of group decision making that he called |
| groupthink | involves an extreme form of group cohesiveness in which group members begin to think alike and do not question each other or consider alternative choices in making a decision |
| Illusion of Invulnerability, Collective Rationalization, Illusion of Morality, Excessive Stereotyping, Pressure for Conformity, Self-Censorship, Illusion of Unanimity, Mindguards | eight symptoms of group think |
| Illusion of Invulnerability | Members ignore obvious danger. |
| Collective Rationalization | Members discredit anything contrary to group thinking. |
| Illusion of Morality | Members believe their decisions are morally correct. |
| Excessive Stereotyping | The group constructs negative stereotypes of outgroup members. |
| Pressure for Conformity | Members pressure any in the group who express opposition and consider it disloyalty. |
| Self-Censorship | Members withhold their dissenting views and counter-arguments. |
| Illusion of Unanimity | Members perceive falsely that everyone agrees with the group's decision; silence is seen as consent. |
| Mindguards | Some members appoint themselves to the role of protector |
| groupthink | is the process by which members of a cohesive group arrive at a decision that many individual members privately believe is unwise |
| laissez-faire | Leaders using the __________ style of leadership do not want to be involved in the decision making process of government that affects individual’s lives |
| Sex | refers to the biological differences between females and males. |
| gender | refers to the culturally and socially constructed differences between females and males. |
| intersexual | Also known as hermaphrodites – people who are born with a combination of male and female reproductive organs |
| Transgender | persons whose appearance, behavior, and/or gender identity does not match that individual’s assigned sex. |
| Transvestite | a male who dresses as a woman or a female who dresses as a man, but does not alter themselves physically. |
| transsexual | a person who believes that he or she was born with the body of the wrong sex. |
| Cultural variation | sexual practices vary considerably from culture to culture. Some are less restrictive than others |
| sexual orientation | An individual’s preference for emotional–sexual relationships with members of the opposite sex (heterosexuality), the same sex (homosexuality), or both (bisexuality) |
| civil rights | Gay or lesbian couples who are unable to enter into a legally recognized marriage are often denied parental rights, employment, the ability to make end of life decisions for their loved one, insurance for medical care, and other benefits, etc. |
| Homophobia | Extreme prejudice and sometimes discriminatory actions directed at gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and others who are perceived as not being heterosexual |
| Prostitution | Selling of sexual services |
| Rape | A violent act that uses sex to hurt, humiliate, or control another person |
| Date rape (or acquaintance rape) | Forcible sexual violence against women by men they know |
| Structural-functional analysis, Symbolic-interaction analysis, Conflict theory | sociological paradigms |
| Structural-functional analysis | Need to regulate sexual behavior, Sex functions to perpetuate the species |
| Symbolic-interaction analysis | The social construction of sexuality, Sexual practices vary from culture to culture |
| Conflict theory | Highlights dimensions of inequality, Shows how sexuality reflects patterns of social inequality and helps perpetuate them |
| sexual orientation | ________ is an individual’s preference for emotional–sexual relationships with members of the opposite sex (heterosexuality), the same sex (homosexuality), or both (bisexuality) |
| sex, gender | ______ refers to the biological differences between females and males. ______ refers to the culturally and socially constructed differences between females and males |
| deviance | Behavior that fails to conform to the rules or norms of the group in question |
| Emile Durkheim | deviant behavior is “an integral part of all healthy societies.” |
| social control | Practices that social groups develop to encourage conformity to norms, rules, and laws and to discourage deviance. |
| Internal social control | takes place when individuals internalize norms and values and follow those norms and values in their lives. |
| External social control | other people’s responses to a person’s behavior – that is, rewards and punishments. |
| Travis Hirschi's Social Control theory | based on the premise that deviance occurs when informal and formal elements of social control fail to constrain persons from engaging in deviance. |
| Anomie | normlessness |
| deviant behavior | The central assumption of Anomie Theory is that __________ must be understood in relation to the presence or absence of a moral code within society that provides people with a true sense of meaning, purpose, and belonging. |
| Robert K. Merton's strain theory | theory that focuses on strain which emerges when individuals and groups desire approved social goals but find themselves unable to attain them through socially approved means |
| cultural transmission theory | All behavior is learned: therefore deviant behavior is also learned. The theory focuses on the key variables involved in learning. |
| Age of the learner, Intensity of contact with the deviant teacher, Ratio of good to bad social contacts in the learner’s life. | variables of the cultural transmission theory |
| labeling theory | The focus shifts from the deviant individual to the social process by which a person comes to be labeled as deviant and the consequences of such labeling for the individual |
| Primary deviance | refers the initial act of rule breaking |
| Secondary deviance | occurs when a person who has been labeled a deviant accepts the identity and continues the deviant behavior. |
| primary deviance and secondary deviance | stages of the labeling process |
| deviance | ________ is any belief, behavior, or condition that violates significant social norms in the society or group in which it occurs |
| ritualism | The "good worker" in a large institutional job is often an example of what type of adaptation in Strain Theory? |
| social control | ________ refers to the systematic practices that social groups develop in order to encourage conformity to norms, rules, and laws, and to discourage deviance |
| families | constitute about one third of all homeless and are the fastest-growing group of homeless |
| felony | a serious crime such as rape, homicide, or aggravated assault, for which punishment typically ranges from more than a year’s imprisonment to death. |
| misdemeanor | a minor crime typically punished by less than one year in jail. |
| The Uniform Crime Report (UCR) | a major source of information on crimes in the U.S |
| Violent Crime | involve force or threat of force: murder, rape, robbery, etc. |
| Property Crime | burglary, vehicle theft, etc. |
| Public Order Crime | illegal actions without “victims” (prostitution, illegal gambling, etc.) |
| Occupational Crime | illegal activities by people in the course of employment or financial affairs. |
| Corporate Crime | illegal acts committed by corporate employees on behalf of the corporation. |
| Organized Crime | business operation that provides illegal goods and services for profit. |
| Political Crime | illegal acts involving the usurpation of power by government officials, or illegal acts perpetrated against the government by outsiders seeking to make a political statement, undermine the government, or over-throw it. |
| Retribution | The punishment should fit the crime. |
| Social protection | Restrict offenders so they can’t commit further crimes. |
| Rehabilitation | Return offenders to the community as law-abiding citizens |
| Deterrence | Reduce criminal activity through a fear of punishment |
| innovation | Punishment is seen as serving four functions. Which item below is NOT one of those functions? |
| families with children | _________ are the fastest growing category of homeless persons in the United States? |
| social stratification | A system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy |
| social class | A category of people who share similar opportunities, similar economic and vocational positions, similar lifestyles, and similar attitudes and behaviors. |
| Income | Earnings from work or investments |
| Wealth | Total value of money and other assets, minus outstanding debts |
| Closed system | boundaries between hierarchies are rigid, people’s positions are set by ascribed status. |
| Open system | boundaries between hierarchies may be influenced by people’s achieved statuses. |
| Social Mobility | The movement of individuals or groups from one level in a stratification system to another. |
| Intragenerational Mobility | The social movement of individuals within their own lifetime. |
| Intergenerational Mobility | The social movement experienced by family members from one generation to the next. |
| socioeconomic status (SES) | A combined measure that, in order to determine class location, attempts to classify individuals, families, or households in terms of factors such as income, occupation, and education |
| Upper Class | comprised of people who own substantial income-producing assets |
| Upper-Middle Class | . based on university degrees, authority on the job, and high income. |
| middle class | a minimum of a high school diploma or a community college degree. |
| Working Class | semiskilled workers, in routine, mechanized jobs, and workers in pink collar occupations. |
| Working Poor | live just above to just below the poverty line. |
| underclass | people who are poor, seldom employed, and caught in long-term deprivation |
| life chances | Access to resources such as food, clothing, shelter, education & health care |
| Health | Amount and adequacy of needed medical care vary with income levels |
| Cultural values and attitudes | Vary with social class position |
| Absolute poverty | exists when people do not have the means to secure the most basic necessities of life. |
| Relative poverty | exists when people may be able to afford basic necessities but are still unable to maintain an average standard of living. |
| Functionalist Solutions | Strengthen social institutions (education, family) so they can help meet the needs of poor individuals |
| Conflict Solutions | We must reduce gender, racial, and class inequality before we can eliminate poverty. |
| Symbolic Interactionist Solutions | Reduce stigma associated with being poor by changing how we view those in poverty |
| Wealth | is the value of a person’s or family’s economic assets, including income, personal property, and income-producing property. |
| Prestige | is the regard with which a person or status position is regarded by others. |
| Power | is the ability of people or groups to achieve their goals despite opposition from others. |
| Max Weber | who came up with the idea of Wealth, Prestige, and Power |
| money, medical care, and property | Those that are poor typically have fewer life chances, which means they also have fewer opportunities to obtain __________ |
| wealth | __________ is the total value of money and other assets, minus outstanding debts. |
| socioeconomic status | Sociologists often use the term __________ to refer to a combined measure that attempts to classify individuals, families, or households in terms of factors such as income, occupation, and education to determine class location |
| age, race and ethnicity, urban and rural poverty, and gender | demographics of poverty |
| feminization of poverty | The trend of women making up an increasing proportion of the poor |
| For many workers, earnings have stalled. More jobs offer little income. The recent recession brought economic decline Young people are remaining at home. | what are the four factors that have eroded the American Dream for the middle class |
| pink-collar occupations | Relatively low-paying, nonmanual, semiskilled positions primarily held by women, such as day-care workers, checkout clerks, cashiers, and waitpersons |
| 52%, 10% | of all poor families, what percentage are headed by women with no spouse and what percentage are headed by men with no spouse? |
| 1946-1964 | years of the baby boomers |
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