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Foundations of Bio
Foundations of Biology, Marcus Webster, CSBSJU
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Characteristics of Life | Have one or more cells, Require energy, Metabolize, Grow, Respond to stimuli, Adapt, Reproduce |
| Prokaryotes | lack internal compartments |
| Potential Energy | stored energy |
| Taxonomy | is the branch of biology that names and classifies species into a hierarchical order |
| Elements | substances that cannot be chemically interconverted or broken down into simpler substances and are primary constituents of matter |
| Ions | an atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the loss or gain of one or more electrons. |
| Isotopes | an atom or molecule with fewer or extra neutrons |
| Synthesis Reaction | combining simple things into complex things |
| Polar and Nonpolar Bonds | polar, not shared, taken and given away nonpolar, shared equally |
| Cohesion | a property of water that makes its molecules attracted to each other |
| Polymer | s a large molecule, or macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits (many parts) |
| Glycogen | polysaccharide deposited in bodily tissues as a store of carbohydrates. |
| Amino Acids | building blocks of proteins, a simple organic compound containing both a carboxyl (—COOH) and an amino (—NH2) group. |
| Protein Structure | polymers — specifically polypeptides — formed from sequences of monomer amino acids |
| Nucleotide | a compound consisting of a nucleoside linked to a phosphate group. Nucleotides form the basic structural unit of nucleic acids such as DNA |
| Natural Selection | mechanism that drives evolution. Occurs when organisms vary in genetically controlled heritable traits that alter fitness. Allele frequencies change as a result of differential selection. |
| Homologies | shared similarities between species inherited from a common ancestor. anatomic and molecular |
| Directional Selection | individuals with traits at one extreme favored over the other. |
| Mass Extinction | wiping out an entire species |
| Open Systems | a system that exchanges energy and materials with the outside environment |
| Eukaryotes | an organism consisting of a cell or cells in which the genetic material is DNA in the form of chromosomes contained within a distinct nucleus. Eukaryotes include all living organisms other than the eubacteria and archaebacteria. |
| Emergent Properties | result from the arrangement and interaction of parts within a system |
| Domains | the highest taxonomic rank of organisms in the three-domain system of taxonomy |
| Common Elements of Life | CHON (PS) |
| Covalent Bonds | share |
| Decomposition Reaction | chemical reaction in which a single compound breaks down into two or more elements or new compounds. These reactions often involve an energy source such as heat, light, or electricity that breaks apart the bonds of compounds. |
| Water Properties | e.g. specific heat |
| Acid/Base/Buffers | buffer protects against change when strong acid or base is added |
| Monosacharrides | glucose (dextrose), fructose (levulose) and galactose |
| Phospholipids | form the cell membrane |
| Protein functions | repair and maintenance energy hormones antibodies enzymes transportation and storage of molecules |
| Enzymes | catalyze these chemical reactions |
| Nucleic Acids | nucleic acids are biopolymers, or large biomolecules, essential for all known forms of life. Nucleic acids, which include DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid), are made from monomers known as nucleotides |
| Charles Darwin | species arose from a succession of ancestors through “descent with modification” (evolution). the mechanism of evolution is natural selection. Differential reproductive success leads to natural selection |
| Wallace Line | separates Palawan and the Philippines |
| Founder Principle | individuals that disperse to a new area to found a population have a subset of the alleles from the entire population, leading to a large change in allele frequencies due to drift. |
| Biological Heirarchy | atoms are ordered into complex biological molecules. Molecules are arranged into organelles, which are the components of cells. Cells > tissues > organs > organisms > populations > communities > ecosystems > the biosphere |
| Homeostasis | maintaining and regulating system processes, stablizing internally, keeping within narrow limits |
| Hydrogen Bonds | bonds between hydrogen and any other atom |
| Equilibrium | balance |
| Solvent | what the solute is in |
| Glucose | Sugar |
| Peptide Linkage | chemical bond between amino acids |
| Activation Energy | the minimum energy which must be available to a chemical system with potential reactants to result in a chemical reaction. |
| Genetic Drift | changes in allele frequencies across generations due to chance events: Random disturbances Small populations Founder effects |
| Alfred Russell Wallace | developed th same ideas as Darwin and sent him a manuscript that prompted Darwin to publish The Origin of Species quickly |
| Artificial Selection | farmers, pet owners, and livestock breeders select traits in organisms |
| Reproductive Isolation | individuals from different populations of the same species cannot produce viable offspring. Pre- and Post-zygotic |
| Cambrian Explosion | ~500 million years ago Groups of most modern animals appear during this time. |
| Multicellularity | an essential step in the evolution of complex life was the combination of many cells into a single organism. |
| Fitness | measure of the relative contribution of an individual to the genetic makeup of the next generation. Influenced by: the likelihood of surviving to reproduce the number of offspring produced he likelihood that those offspring will survive to reproduce. |
| Biological Species Concept | members of the same species: 1. Interbreed in nature. 2. Produce viable and fertile offspring. 3. Cannot produce viable offspring with other species. |
| Eukaryotic | like prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells have a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes. Eukaryotic cells are larger and contain many membrane-enclosed organelles. |
| Phylogenies | reflect patterns produced by evolution and reveal evolutionary relationships of organisms. |
| Sexual Selection | mate selection drives the evolution of ever-brighter or gaudier ornamentation (usually in males). |
| Disruptive Selection | individuals at either extreme favored. |
| Stablizing Selection | individuals with intermediate traits favored. |
| Biology | -the study of life, is rooted in the human spirit. -a scientific extension of the human tendency to connect to and be curious about life. |
| Cell Theory | result from the arrangement and interaction of parts within a system |
| Macromolecule | Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids |
| Energy | is the capacity or ability to do work, or to move mass through a distance. heat, chemical energy, mechanical movement. |
| Endoplasmic Reiticulum | a network of membranous tubules within the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell, continuous with the nuclear membrane. It usually has ribosomes attached and is involved in protein and lipid synthesis. |
| Multicellularity | a condition or state of having or being composed of many cells or more than one cell performing differing functions |
| Membrane Proteins | proteins that interact with biological membranes. They are one of the common types of protein along with soluble globular proteins, fibrous proteins, and disordered proteins |
| Voltage-Gated Channels | a class of transmembrane ion channels that are activated by changes in electrical membrane potential near the channel; these types of ion channels are especially critical in neurons, but are common in many types of cells |
| Membrane Potential | the charge difference the cytoplasm and extracellular fluid in all cells, due to the differential distribution of ions |
| cAMP | is a G protein-coupled receptor-triggered signaling cascade used in cell communication |
| Mitochondria | an organelle found in large numbers in most cells, in which the biochemical processes of respiration and energy production occur |
| Ribosomes | a minute particle consisting of RNA and associated proteins, found in large numbers in the cytoplasm of living cells. They bind messenger RNA and transfer RNA to synthesize polypeptides and proteins |
| Selective Permiability | a selectively permeable cell membrane is one that allows certain molecules or ions to pass through it by means of active or passive transport |
| Osmosis | a process by which molecules of a solvent tend to pass through a semipermeable membrane from a less concentrated solution into a more concentrated one, thus equalizing the concentrations on each side of the membrane |
| Signal Transduction Pathway | set of chemical reactions in a cell that occurs when a molecule, such as a hormone, attaches to a receptor on the cell membrane |
| Second Messenger | a substance whose release within a cell is promoted by a hormone and that brings about a response by the cell. |
| Nucleus | a dense organelle present in most eukaryotic cells, typically a single rounded structure bounded by a double membrane, containing the genetic material |
| Surface Area/Volume Area Ratio | 1:4????? |
| ATP | an adenosine-derived nucleotide that supplies large amounts of energy to cells for various biochemical processes, including muscle contraction and sugar metabolism, through its hydrolysis to ADP |
| Active Transport | the movement of ions or molecules across a cell membrane into a region of higher concentration, assisted by enzymes and requiring energy |
| Hypertonic | having a higher osmotic pressure than a particular fluid, typically a body fluid or intracellular fluid |
| G-proteins | are a family of proteins that act as molecular switches inside cells, and are involved in transmitting signals from a variety of stimuli outside a cell to its interio |
| Mitosis | a type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus, typical of ordinary tissue growth |
| Chromosomes | a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes |
| Sexual Reproduction | the production of new living organisms by combining genetic information from two individuals of different types (sexes). In most higher organisms, one sex (male) produces a small motile gamete that travels to fuse with a larger stationary gamete (female) |
| Crossing Over | the exchange of genes between homologous chromosomes, resulting in a mixture of parental characteristics in offspring |
| Homologous Chromosomes | chromosomes of the same size and similar structure. In their structure homologous chromosomes have the same genes as each other in the same sequence but do not necessarily have the same allele of those genes |
| Cell Cycle Stages | Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the mitotic (M) phase of the cell cycle – the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells, genetically identical to each other and to their parent cell |
| Telophase | the final phase of cell division, between anaphase and interphase, in which the chromatids or chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell and two nuclei are formed |
| Independent Assortment | formation of random combinations of chromosomes in meiosis and of genes on different pairs of homologous chromosomes by the passage according to the laws of probability of one of each diploid pair of homologous chromosomes into each gamete independently |
| S-Phase | the part of the cell cycle in which DNA is replicated, occurring between G1 phase and G2 phase |
| Epinephrin | Chemical signal- non-lipid soluble amino acid - can't enter cell unless channelled |
| Cyclin-dependent Kinasis | a group of protein kinases that are activated by the formation of a complex with a cyclin and are involved in the regulation of the cell cycle. Cyclin-dependent kinases are serine/threonine kinases. |
| MPF | the cyclin-Cdk complex that was discovered first in frog eggs. It stimulates the mitotic and meiotic phases of the cell cycle |
| Metaphase 1 | the condensed chromosomes attach to the centre of the spindle |
| Meiosis | a type of cell division that results in four daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell, as in the production of gametes and plant spores. |
| Haploid | cell or nucleus containing one set of unpaired chromosomes |
| Diploid | cell or nucleus containing one set of paired chromosomes |
| 1st Law of Therodynamics | heat is a form of energy and heat energy cannot be created or destroyed |
| Kreb's Cycle | the sequence of reactions to generate energy during the process of aerobic respiration. It takes place in the mitochondria, consuming oxygen, producing carbon dioxide and water as waste products, and converting ADP to energy-rich ATP |
| 2nd Law of Therodynamics | the state of entropy of the entire universe, as an isolated system, will always increase over time and changes can never be negative |
| Anaerobic Respiration | form of respiration using electron acceptors other than oxygen. Although oxygen is not used as the final electron acceptor, the process still uses a respiratory electron transport chain; it is respiration without oxygen |
| Aerobic Respiration | oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide and water are produced |
| Visible Light | form of electromagnetic (EM) radiation, as are radio waves, infrared radiation, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and microwaves. Generally, visible light is defined as the wavelengths that are visible to most human eyes |
| Carbon Fixation | conversion process of inorganic carbon (carbon dioxide) to organic compounds by living organisms. The most prominent example is photosynthesis, although chemosynthesis is another form of carbon fixation that can take place in the absence of sunlight |
| Glycolysis | the breakdown of glucose by enzymes, releasing energy and pyruvic acid |
| Lactate | a product of fermentation and is produced during cellular respiration as glucose is broken down |
| ATP Synthase | an important enzyme that provides energy for the cell to use through the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the most commonly used "energy currency" of cells from most organisms. |
| Rubisco | an enzyme present in plant chloroplasts, involved in fixing atmospheric carbon dioxide during photosynthesis and in oxygenation of the resulting compound during photorespiration |
| Pyruvate | the end product of glycolysis and may be metabolized to lactate or to acetyl CoA |
| Oxidation Phosphorylation | the metabolic pathway in which the mitochondria in cells use their structure, enzymes, and energy released by the oxidation of nutrients to reform ATP |
| Mitochondrial Membrane | outer- mitochondria and rest of cell inner- matrix and intermembrane space |
| Lipid Soluble Hormones | lipid-soluble hormones : steroid hormones and thyroid hormones ex. estrogen, cholesterol, testosterone (the -ones) |
| Chlorophyll | absorbs light energy during photosynthesis and the green pigment in the chloroplasts. |
| Calvin Cycle | incorporates CO2 from the atmosphere into an organic molecule and uses energy from the light reaction to reduce the new carbon piece to sugar. |
| DNA Composition | A,C,G,T |
| DNA Structure | double helix |
| RNA Composition | A,C,G,U |
| RNA Structure | single strand |
| DNA Replication | process in which the double stranded DNA is unzipped and copied to produce two identical DNA molocules |
| DNA Polymerase | an enzyme that replaces RNA primers at the beginning of Okazaki fragments by simultaneously removing the primers and replacing then with the corresponding DNA nucleotides |
| Okazaki Fragments | fragments of DNA formed during DNA replication on the lagging strand;must be connected with DNA ligase to complete replication of the strand |
| Transcription | process by which the information in a strand of DNA is copied into a new molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA) |
| The Genetic Code | Redundant- , Unambiguous- , Universal- |
| Nonsense Mutations | a mutation in which a sense codon that corresponds to one of the twenty amino acids specified by the genetic code is changed to a chain-terminating codon. |
| Leading and Lagging Strands | the strand of DNA that is replicated in the same direction as the movement of the replication fork, replicated continuously as the double helix opens |
| Translation | the process in which cellular ribosomes create proteins. In translation, messenger RNA (mRNA)—produced by transcription from DNA—is decoded by a ribosome to produce a specific amino acid chain, or polypeptide. |
| Gene | a segment of DNA with instructions for protein or RNA synthesis |
| Chargaff's Rules | in a given sample of double-stranded DNA, the amount of adenine is equal to the amount of thyamine, and the amount ofguanine is equal to the amount of cytosine |
| Codon | a sequence of three nucleotides that together form a unit of genetic code in a DNA or RNA molecule |
| Genome | haploid set of chromosomes in a gamete or microorganism- complete set of genes or genetic material present in a cell or organism |
| Exons | a segment of a DNA or RNA molecule containing information coding for a protein or peptide sequence |
| Introns | a segment of a DNA or RNA molecule that does not code for proteins and interrupts the sequence of genes |
| Fermentation | anaerobic metabolism |
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