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A&P2 part 2 Exam1
A&P2 Part 2 Exam 1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Central Nervous System | Brain and spinal cord |
| Peripheral nervous system (pns) | All nerves to spinal cord and other parts of the body |
| Autonomic nervous system ( ANS) | Control of involuntary body functions ( ex heartbeat digestion ) |
| Three parts of a neuron | Celll body , dendrite , Axon |
| Cell body of neuron | main part |
| Dendrites | branching projections that conduct impulses to the cell body of the neuron |
| Axon | elongated projection that conducts impulses away from the cell body of the neuron |
| Melanin sheets | Made of protein phospholipid layer around axon |
| Three main types of connective tissue cells in SNS | Astrocytes, Microglia, Oligodendrocytes |
| Astrocytes | star shaped cells that anchor small blood vessels to neurons |
| Microglia | small cells that move in inflamed brain tissue carrying phagocytosis |
| Oligodendrocytes | form myelin sheaths on axons in the CNS (Schwann cells form myelin sheaths in PNS only) |
| Nerve | bundle of peripheral axons |
| Tract | bundle of central axons |
| Matter | brain or cord tissue composed primarily of myelinated axons (tracts) |
| Gray matter | brain or cord tissue composed primarily of cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers |
| Nerve coverings | fibrous connective tissue |
| Endoneurium | surrounds individual fibers within a nerve |
| Perineurium | surrounds a group (fascicle) of nerve fibers |
| Epineurium | surrounds the entire nerve |
| Nerve impulses (action potentials | are conducted from receptors to effectors over neuron pathways or reflex arcs; conduction by a reflex arc results in a reflex (that is, contraction by a muscle or secretion by a gland) |
| Two-neuron arcs | • The simplest reflex arcs, sensory neurons synapsing in the spinal cord with motor neurons; • Knee Jerk |
| Three-neuron arcs | • Sensory neurons synapse in the spinal cord Interneuron synapse with motor neurons and spinal cord • More complex response; involves an interneuron, in addition to sensory and motor |
| action potentials | o A self-propagating wave of electrical disturbance that travels along the surface of a neuron membrane |
| • Olfactory | from nose to brain |
| • Optic | from eye to brain |
| • Oculomotor | from brain to eye muscle |
| • Trochlear | from brain to external eye muscles |
| • Trigeminal | from skin and mucous of head and from teeth to the brain, also from brain to chewing muscles |
| • Abduces | from brain to the external eye muscles |
| • Facial | from taste buds of tongue to brain, from brain to face muscles |
| • Vestibulocochlear | from ear to the brain |
| • Glossopharyngeal – | From throat and taste buds of tongue to brain, also from brain to throat muscles and salivary glands |
| • Vagus | from throat, larynx, and organs in thoracic and abdominal cavities to the brain, also from brain to muscles of throat and to organs in thoracic abdominal cavities |
| • Accessory | from brain to certain shoulder and neck muscles |
| • Hypoglossal | from brain to muscles of tongue • Tongue movements |
| o Sciatica | • Is inflammation of the sciatic nerve that innervates the legs |
| o Neuralgia | • or muscle pain, often accompanies neuritis |
| o Trigeminal neuralgia | • Recurring episodes of stabbing pain along one or more branches of the trigeminal (fifth cranial) nerve in the head |
| o Bell palsy | • Paralysis of facial features resulting from damage to the facial (seventh cranial) nerve |
| o Herpes zoster, or shingles | • Viral infection caused by chickenpox virus that has invaded the dorsal root ganglion and remained dormant until an episode of shingles |
| o Autonomic nervous system | • Motor neurons that conduct impulses from the central nervous system to • Cardiac muscle, Smooth muscle, glandular epithelial tissue; |
| o Autonomic neurons— | • Preganglionic autonomic neurons conduct from spinal cord or brainstem to an autonomic ganglion |
| o Autonomic or visceral effectors | • Tissues to which autonomic neurons conduct impulses • Composed of two divisions—the sympathetic system and the parasympathetic system |
| o Autonomic conduction paths | • Consist of two-neuron relays (that is, preganglionic neurons from the CNS to autonomic ganglia, synapses, postganglionic neurons from ganglia to visceral effectors) |
| • Sympathetic Nervous System | o A chain of sympathetic ganglia is in front of and at each side of the spinal columno Serves as the emergency or stress system, controlling o Change enduced fight-or-flight response |
| • Parasympathetic Nervous System | o Parasympathetic preganglionic neurons have dendrites and cell bodies in the gray matter of the brainstem and the sacral segments of spinal cord everyday system |
| o Cholinergic fibers | eganglionic axons of parasympathetic and sympathetic systems and parasympathetic postganglionic axons release acetylcholine |
| o Adrenergic fibers— | axons of sympathetic postganglionic neurons release norepinephrine (noradrenaline) |
| • Autonomic Nervous System as a Whole | o Regulates the body’s automatic functions in ways that maintain or quickly restore homeostasis |
| • Which neurons transmit impulses from the brain and the spinal cord | o Motor |
| the most common primary diseases of the cns is a myelin disorder called | o Multiple sclerosis |
| • Nerve impulses are also called __ because each one is a difference in charge that usually triggers an action by the cell | o Action potential |
| • Identify the two morphine like neurotransmitters that function as inhibitors | o Endorphins and enkephalis |
| • Which of these would not be found in the brain stem | o Thalamus |
| • Which division of the nervous system function as emergency system | o Sympathetic |
| • General senses | ➢ temperature, touch, pressure, pain and proprioception |
| ➢ Special senses | special organs of the head. ➢ sight, sound, taste, smell and balance |
| Properties of Stimulus | • Sensory neurons are activated • Neurons terminate in brain • Each receptor type is most sensitive to a particular modality of stimulus |
| Labeled Line coding | • 1:1 association of receptor with sensation . The brain associates a signal coming from a specific receptor with a specific modality. |
| Properties of Stimulus: Intensity | ➢ Coded by number of receptors activated and frequency of action potentials |
| Properties of Stimulus Duration | ➢ Coded by duration of action potentials ➢ Some receptors can adapt, or cease to respond |
| • Action potential | ➢ Rapid and uniform electrical signal conducted down a cell membrane |
| • Graded potential | ➢ Change in membrane potential whose magnitude is proportional to the stimulus and that decreases with distance as it spreads inside the cell membrane |
| Receptor potential | • Change in sensory receptor membrane potential (graded potential in a special senses receptor |
| • Meissner’s corpuscles | Fine touch |
| Pacinian corpuscles | • Vibration |
| Merkel receptors | Pressure/texture |
| Temperature Receptors | Free nerve endings Terminate in subcutaneous layers |
| Nociceptors | pain |
| The somatic senses include | itch, touch ,proprioception ( body n space) pain |
| Proprioreceptors monitor | limb and muscle position |
| The minimum stimulus required to activate a sensory receptor is its _______. | threshold |
| Which type of sensory information is NOT routed through the thalamus on its way to the brain | olfactory |
| The intensity of a sensory stimulus is coded by _____. | the frequency of action potentials |
| Fibers that carry the most rapid sensory signals are | myelinated and large diameter |
| Ipsilateral means | on the same side |
| Ascending sensory pathways cross the midline | in the brainstem and in the spinal cord) |
| Visual Pathway | ➢ Innermost layer of retina contains rods and cones➢ Nerve impulse leaves the eye through the optic nerve; the point of exit is free of receptors and is therefore called a blind spot brain can process visual info |
| Diabetic retinopathy | damage to retina from hemorrhages and growth of abnormal vessels associated with diabetes mellitus |
| Glaucoma | increased intraocular pressure decreases blood flow in retina and thus causes retinal degeneration |
| Nyctalopia | night blindness) or the inability to see in dim light is caused by retinal degeneration or lack of vitamin A Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) (most common) |
| External ear | Contains ceruminous glands ( secrete air wax) ➢ Inflammation called otitis media |
| Inner Ear | semicircular canals, and cochlea |
| Cells acted on by hormones | target cells found within target organs |
| Hormones removed from blood by | Degrading enzymes Kidneys Liver |
| Half-life | time required for hormone's blood level to decrease by half |
| duration of Hormone Activity | ➢ Ranges from 10 seconds to several hours |
| Nonsteroid and Steroid Hormones | Nonsteroid hormones (first messengers) bind to receptors on the target cell membrane, triggering second messengers to affect the cell’s activities |
| Target Cell Activation | Target cell activation depends on three factors ➢ Blood levels of hormone ➢ Relative number of receptors on or in target cell ➢ Affinity of binding between receptor and hormone |
| ➢ Up-regulation | target cells form more receptors in response to low hormone levels |
| ➢ Down-regulation— | target cells lose receptors in response to high hormone levels |
| Regulation of Hormone Secretion | • Negative feedback—mechanisms that reverse the direction of a change in a physiological system o Maintain homeostatis , insulin • Positive feedback—(uncommon) mechanisms that amplify o Oxytosin child birth |
| Prostaglandins | Diffuse only a short distance to act on cells in that tissue |
| Anterior pituitary gland | ➢ Adeno = gland |
| Posterior pituitary gland | neurohypophysis) ➢ Neuro = nervous |
| TSH—• Thyroid-stimulating hormone | stimulates growth of the thyroid gland; also stimulates thyroid hormone release |
| ACTH• Adrenocorticotropic hormone | stimulates growth of the adrenal cortex and glucocorticoids (mainly cortisol) release |
| FSH• Follicle-stimulating hormone | initiates growth of ovarian follicles each month in the ovary and stimulates one or more follicles to develop to the stage of maturity and ovulation |
| LH• Luteinizing hormone | Acts with FSH to stimulate estrogen secretion and follicle growth to maturity Causes ovulation Causes luteinization of the ruptured follicle |
| GH- growth hormone | Stimulates growth by accelerating protein anabolism Accelerates fat catabolism and slows glucose catabolism |
| Prolactin (PRL) or lactogenic hormone | Stimulates breast development during pregnancy Secretion of milk after the delivery of the baby |
| ADH (Vasopressin) | Inhibits or prevents urine formation Regulates water balance |
| Oxytocin | ➢ Stimulates the pregnant uterus to contract ➢ May initiate labor |
| Thyroid Gland | t3 10 times more active |
| Function of Hormones | Insulin decreases the blood glucose by accelerating the movement of glucose |
| hypoglycemia | excessive insulin secretion causes hypoglycemia |
| ➢ Ovaries produce | estrogens and progesterone |
| Placenta secretes | estrogens, progesterone, and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG |
| ➢ Adrenogenital syndrome | hyper secretion |
| Thymus | ➢ Plays an important role in the development and function of the body’s immune system |
| Placenta | Produces chorionic gonadotropins, estrogens, and progesterone ➢ Maintain the corpus luteum during pregnancy |
| Pineal Gland | ➢ Glandular tissue predominates in children and young adults ➢ Becomes fibrous and calcified with age Secretes melatonin |
| • Normal volumes of blood | o Plasma-2.6 l o Formed elements 2.4 l o Whole blood- 4 to 6 L average or 7% |
| RBC Abnormalities Named according to size: | ➢ Normocytes- normal blood cell size ➢ Microcytic ➢ Macrocytixc |
| Named according to hemoglobin content of cell: | ➢ Normochromic – normoal content of heboglobin ➢ Hypochromic ➢ Hyperchromic |
| Polycythemia | Cause is generally cancerous transformation of red bone marrow Dramatic increase in RBC numbers |
| Anemia | Caused by low numbers or abnormal RBCs or by low levels or defective types of hemoglobin |
| Leukocyte Types and Functions | ➢ Neutrophils ➢ Eosinophils ➢ Basophils |
| Agranulocytes | monocytes in peripheral blood (macrophages in tissues); |
| lymphocytes—B lymphocytes | ➢ Monocytes ➢ Lumphocytes |
| White Blood Cell Disorders | ➢ Lymphoid neoplasms ➢ Myeloid neoplasms |
| Multiple Myeloma | Cancer of B lymphocytes called plasma cells |
| fibrous pericardium | There to protect the heart and anchor it in the body Layers separated by fluid filled caviy t |
| Heart chambers | ➢ Two upper chambers are called atria (receiving chambers)—right and left atria ➢ Two lower chambers called ventricles (discharging chambers discharge blood)—right and left ventricles |
| myocardium | Wall of each heart chamber is composed of cardiac muscle tissue called |
| Endocardium | smooth lining of heart chambers |
| ➢ Fossa ovalis | remnant of foramen ovale of fetal heart |
| Interventricular septum | separates ventricles |
| The Pulmonary and Systemic Circuits | Heart is transport system; two side-by-side pumps ➢ Right side receives oxygen-poor blood from tissues (pulmonary circuit) ➢ Left side receives oxygenated blood from lungs systemic ) |
| The Pulmonary and Systemic Circuits | ➢ Right atrium ➢ Left atrium |
| Heart Valves | • Valves keep blood flowing through the heart; prevent backflow • Atrioventricular (AV) valves |
| Pulmonary semilunar | Beginning of the pulmonary artery |
| Aortic semilunar | Beginning of the aorta |
| Systemic circuit | ➢ Left atrium à mitral valve à left ventricle ➢ Left ventricle à aortic semilunar valve à aorta ➢ Aorta à systemic circulation |
| • SA (sinoatrial) node | pace maker o Sets pace for the rhythm of the heart |
| • AV (atrioventricular) node | located in the right atrium interatrial septum |
| • AV bundle | septum of ventricle |
| • Purkinje fibers | in the wall of ventricle |
| eeg trace | depolorization caused by p wave ,impulse delayed to av node, ventricular depolorization qrs atrial deplorization occurs ,ventricular depolorization complete, ventricular repolorization begings t wave, ventricular repolorization complete |
| right side of the heart | recieves oxygen poor blood from tissue |
| left side receives | oxygenated blood from the lungs |
| vericosa veins | enlarged veins in which blood pools |
| thrombophlebitis | vein inflammmation accompanied by clot formation |
| bluish tint in fetal blood circulation | cyanosis |
| how many pulse points are there | 9 |
| vital signs | temperature , pressure , respiratory rate , pulse |
| pulse | pressure caused by expansion of recoil arteries |
| radial pulse | pulse taken at wrist |
| pressure points | where arteries are close to body surface |
| systolic pressure | less than 120 |
| diastolic pressure | less than 80 |
| hypertension | occurs when blood pressure exceeds 140/90 |
| circulatory stock | failure of the circulatory system to deliver oxygen to the tissues adequately resulting in cell impairment |
| cardiogenic stock | caused by heart failure |
| hypovolemic shock | drop in blood volume that causes blood pressure and blood flow to drop ( hemorrhage) |
| primary or essential hypertension | 90% hypertensive conditions no underlying caise |
| secondary hypertension | due to identifiable disorders including obstructed renal arteries, kidney disease , and endocrine disorders ( hypothyroidism and cushings) |
| hypotension | low blood pressure 90/60 |
| homeostatic imbalance hypotension | orthoatatic hypotension, chronic hypotension , acute hypotension |
Created by:
Julaine_13
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