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Bio test 3 cullum
Bio test 3
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Metabolism | biochemical activity; heat is a byproduct |
| Osmoregulation | Total water content (ECF volume) Overall osmolarity of ECF Concentrations of specific solutes in ECF Important ions (electrolytes) include Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, Cl⁻ Elimination of nitrogenous wastes Ammonia, urea or uric acid |
| Excretion | Movement of unwanted substances out of ECF |
| Secretion | More general term refers to moving anything out of ECF |
| Absorption | Movement of substances into ECF |
| Reabsorption | Applies when it was previously in ECF |
| Filtration | Process of forcing solution through biological sieve |
| osmoconformers | marine invertebrates Body is isosmotic (isotonic) with seawater. Typically show some ion regulation |
| isosmotic | ECF = 1050 mOsm Seawater = 1050 mOsm |
| Sporophyte (2n) | Produces spores by meiosis |
| Spores grow into: Gametophyte (n) | Produces gametes by mitosis |
| Asexual reproduction plants | Clonal copies of parent plant created by mitotically-driven growth |
| sexual reproduction plants | Sporophyte-dominated alternation of generations with gametes and fertilization |
| Monoecious | Male and female flowers on the same plant |
| Dioecious | Male and female flowers on different plants |
| Pollen grains have an elaborate cell wall composed | sporopollenin |
| sporopollenin | Prevents dessication Almost industructable by microorganisms No known enzyme capable of degradation Insoluble in most solvents |
| pollen competition | Only the fastest (and presumably most fit) will fertilize eggs A form of male-male competition As pollen tubes grow through the style they compete with each other |
| endosperm | One sperm fuses with the 2 fused polar nuclei to form 3n |
| zygote | One sperm fuses with the egg to form the 2n |
| double fertilization | One sperm fuses with the egg to form the 2n One sperm fuses with the 2 fused polar nuclei to form 3n |
| Nectar | is a sugar solution produced by plants to attract pollinators |
| marine water regulation | Most NaCl influx at gills Gills thin walls large SA for O₂ diff allows water solute diffusion Most vertebrates cannot urine more concentrated than their ECF isosmotic urine The rectal gland main NaCl excr organ. do not actively drink need no add wat |
| Freshwater fish | Are challenged by water influx and ion efflux at gills Make large amounts of dilute urine to eliminate water Avoid drinking Rely on food and active gill uptake for ions |
| Marine fish | Are challenged by water efflux and ion influx at gills Rely on active excretion of ions at gills Make small amounts of urine to conserve water. (This urine does remove larger ions.) Drink to gain water (despite ion intake) |
| Osmoregulation in Terrestrial Organisms | Reduce water loss – especially in hot, dry habitats Respiratory surfaces are most susceptible to water loss Take in sufficient ions Herbivores in particular may lack NaCl Eliminate nitrogenous wastes Need to avoid toxic effects while conserving water |
| Mammals show osmoregulation | Keratin in skin to reduce evaporative water loss But many use sweating or panting for cooling Kidneys capable of producing hyperosmotic urine Urea is main waste product |
| Excretory systems | Secretion system:Actively secrete excess ions & water wastes from ECF Filtration-reabsorption system: Water and all small solutes leave ECF by bulk flow; useful substances then reabsorbed back into ECF Vertebrates use filtration-reabsorption in kidneys |
| Renal corpuscle | Primary urine forms via filtration renal corpsucle. Filtrate leaves glomerulus and enters Bowman’s capsule |
| Bowman’s capsule | Pores are small enough to hold back cells and proteins. Smaller solutes enter nephron |
| Control of final urine volume | The density of aquaporins in the collecting duct epithelium is controlled by antidiuretic hormone released by the hypothalamus |
| osmoconformer | are marine animals which, in contrast to osmoregulators, maintain the osmolarity of their body fluids such that it is always equal to the surrounding seawater. .... decrease the net flux of water into or out of their bodies from diffusion. |
| loop of henle | the part of a kidney tubule that forms a long loop in the medulla of the kidney, from which water and salts are resorbed into the blood |
| Distal tubule | Density of transporters controlled by aldosterone from loop of henle to collecting duct |
| The density of sodium transporters in the distal tubule epithelium is controlled by | aldosterone |
| Renal corpuscle | Initial creation of glomerular filtrate/urine |
| Proximal tubule | Reabsorption, reduction of urine volume |
| Loop of Henle | Creates & maintains high osmolarity in medulla |
| Distal tubule | Adjusts content |
| Collecting duct | Controls final concentration of urine |
| Mammalian kidney | Helps regulate total ECF volume by adjusting urine volume. Control is with ADH. Helps regulate specific ions – e.g. Na⁺ as controlled by aldosterone. Helps regulate overall osmolarity through combined effects of above. Eliminates wastes – e.g. urea |
| Osmoregulation in mammals | Gain water through drinking, food and metabolism Gain ions through food or some water sources Lose water through respiration, panting, sweating & defecation Lose ions through sweat and defecation |
| Chondrichthyes | cartilaginous fishes are jawed fish with paired fins, paired nares, scales, a heart with its chambers in series, and skeletons made of cartilage rather than bone |
| Chondrichthyes osmoregulation | Osmoconform but regulation ions Rectal gland is major excretory organ Produce urea for osmoregulation |
| Actinopterygii | Actinopterygii, or the ray-finned fishes, constitute a class or subclass of the bony fishes. The ray-finned fishes are so called because they possess lepidotrichia or "fin rays" |
| Actinopterygii osmoregulation | Osmoregulate in both hypo- and hyperosmotic waters Gills are main excretory organ Produce ammonia |
| Reptilia (including birds osmoregulation | Most are terrestrial osmoregulators Kidneys are main excretory organ in most; some have salt glands Produce uric acid |
| mammalia osmoregulation | Most are terrestrial osmoregulators Kidneys are main excretory organ – makes hyperosmotic urine Produce urea |
| Osmoregulation in insects challenges | Challenges for insects: Terrestrial environment – many live in xeric environments Small size & thin appendages → High SA:V ratio |
| Osmoregulation in insects adaptations | Adaptations: Highly impermeable integument, due to chitin and waxes Respiratory system efficient for water loss Produce uric acid Excretory system concentrates the waste solutes |
| Descending LoH lupe of henle | Permeable to water, impermeable to NaCl |
| Thin ascending LoH | Permeable to NaCl, impermeable to water |
| Thick ascending LoH | Active transport of NaCl, impermeable to water |
| Ventilation | is the process of bringing fresh air or water into contact with the respiratory surface by bulk flow |
| Gas exchange | is the diffusion of gas between the environment and the ECF across the respiratory |
| Rate of flow depends on | Pressure differential – higher flow with greater difference Viscosity – lower flow with higher viscosity Diameter of “tubes” – larger tubes give much greater flow |
| Partial pressure | For any gas (e.g., O2), we can find the partial pressure regardless of whether that gas is Part of a mixed gas (e.g., air), or Dissolved in a liquid (e.g., water) Bound to a carrier (e.g., hemoglobin |
| partial pressure equation and descriptions | PX = PTotal × FX PTotal is the total pressure of the mixed gas FX is the fraction of the gas mixture that is X |
| Gas exchange rate becomes more problematic as | Body size increases – due to overall lower SA:V ratio Metabolic rates increase – due to more active lifestyle or endothermy |
| Solutions to gas exchange rate | More complex respiratory surfaces to increase SA More ventilation to increase external PO₂ More circulation to decrease internal PO₂ |
| simple Gills | are extensions or evaginations of the body surface Simplest forms are flattened or finger-like projections Ventilation is passive (due to water currents) or from waving gills |
| complex gills | Greatly increased surface area Active, pumping ventilation providing one-way flow Counter-current exchange between water and blood |
| Counter-current exchange | Blood flow in gills is in opposite direction as water flow This results in nearly complete extraction of O2 from the water |
| positive pressure ventilation | with the buccal cavity contracting to generate the pressure |
| negative pressure ventilation | with an expansion of the thoracic cavity generating a drop in pressure |
| Mammalian ventilation | At rest, diaphragm alone changes volume With activity, thoracic muscles become involved Lung expansion involves increased alveolar size |
| Open circulatory system | Vessels empty into sinus, then blood re-enters vessel system |
| closed circulatory system | Blood stays in vessels throughout transit |
| Capillaries | Thinnest-walled (one cell layer), narrowest, slowest flow |
| Arteries | Larger diameter, thick-walled. Highest flow rates, highest pressure |
| Arterioles | Smaller version of arteries, variable diameter |
| Venules | Thinner walled, slightly larger than arterioles |
| Veins | Bigger version of venules. High flow rates, lowest pressure |
| sinoatrial node | the primary pacemaker |
| gas transport In mammals | Blood leaves lungs and enters with PO₂ ≈ 104 torr and PCO₂ ≈ 40 torr Blood leaves tissues and enters lungs with PO₂ ≈ 40 torr and PCO₂ ≈ 46 torr |
| Hemoglobin | Iron-based. Found in vertebrates and some invertebrates (also in plants and fungi!) |
| Hemocyanin | Copper-based. Found in most molluscs and some arthropods |
| respiratory pigments | Because of low O2 solubility in water, need a carrier Oxygen carriers happen to be colorful, use metal atoms to bind o2 |
| The nervous system | Gathers information about the external and internal environment Activate skeletal muscles and endocrine glands Influences activity of smooth muscle in the GI tract and arterioles Influences heart rate Integrates information and makes decisions |
| Glial cells | Support neurons (physical support, repair, protection) Influence neural activity |
| Neurons | Carry electrical signals Nerves are bundles of neurons |
| Central nervous system (CNS) | Brain – higher-level decision-making and control Brainstem – influences heart, ventilation, digestion Spinal cord – transmits information, some reflexes |
| Peripheral nervous system (PNS) | Afferent division (sensory) – brings sensory info to CNS Efferent division (motor) – carries signals to effectors |
| Autonomic nervous system | (heart, smooth muscle, glands) – involuntary/unconscious activities |
| Sympathetic nervous system | (“fight or flight”) – promotes increased support of physical activity, inhibits digestion |
| Parasympathetic nervous system | (“rest and digest”) – promotes digestion, reduced activity |
| action potentials | Vm changes from negative to positive and back Pattern of changes is very stereotyped Action potentials propagate along axons |
| resting potential | Resting potential is negative inside cell relative to outside |
| Action potentials depend on two types of VG channels | VG Na⁺ channels open quickly when Vm exceeds threshold. They close again after a short delay. VG K⁺ channels open slowly when Vm exceeds threshold. They close again when Vm drops below threshold |
| Voltage-gated (VG) channels | activated by changes in Vm |
| threshold potential | Action potentials are a rapid, fixed-pattern change in Vm Occurs if membrane potential rises above |
| refractory period | VG Na⁺ channels cannot reopen for a short period after reclosing At a given location, a second AP cannot be triggered immediately after the first one |
| How is information transmitted between presynaptic and postsynaptic neuron | In vertebrates, generally via neurotransmitters (NT) NT’s may excite (depolarize) or inhibit (hyperpolarize) the postsynaptic neuron Sufficient excitation in postsynaptic neuron will trigger an AP. More excitation ⟶ more frequent AP’s |
| Some receptors are excitatory | A Na⁺ channel that opens A K⁺ channel that closes |
| Some receptors are inhibitory E.g.: | A Na⁺ channel that closes A K⁺ channel that open |
| Depolarizing events are called | excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP’s) |
| Hyperpolarizing events are called | Hyperpolarizing events are called |
| neuronal integration | Summation allows input from multiple presynaptic neurons to influence the postsynaptic neuron |
| Hypothalamic-pituitary axis | hypothalamic-pituitary system controls gonadal controls aspects of metabolism, energy use and growth |
| Posterior pituitary | The posterior pituitary is an extension of the hypothalamus Its hormones are neurohormones |
| Why are most species sexual? | Probably due to increased chance that some offspring will do well if they are more variable |
| Gametogenesis | Gametes are haploid cells that animals form by meiosis of diploid cells |
| Spawning | involves selective, localized fertililization |
| spermatophore | Sperm can be packaged into a |
| Viviparous | development is internal and the embryo continuously exchanges material with the mother |
| Oviparous | development is external, and can result from internal or external fertilization |
| Ovoviviparous | development is internal but within a yolk-filled egg |
| ovulation occurs when | lsh and lh are high and estrogen progesterone low |
| when progesterone is high | menstration occurs |
| Amylase | digests starches into simple sugars |
Created by:
jpf11230
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