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Anatomy Exam 2
Chapter 5-8, Dr. Cobb
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What are the 3 major regions of the integument? | Epidermis Dermis Hypodermis |
| What is the epidermis? Composed of? | outermost portion of skin, composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium |
| What are the 4 cell types found in the epidermis? | keratinocytes-produce keratin melanocytes-produce melanin Dendritic cells- epidermal macrophages (immune) Merkel cells- specialized sensory nerve endings |
| What are merkel cells? | touch receptors found in epidermis |
| What happens to epidermal cells as the reach the outer layers? | become flattened |
| What is the stratum basale? Composed of? | deepest epidermal layer, firmly attached to dermis single row of youngest keratinocytes |
| What is the stratum spinosum (prickly layer)? | between the stratum basale and stratum granulosum melanin granules and Lanngerhan's cells are found here |
| What are langerhans cells? | dendritic cells, part of epidermis |
| What is the stratum granulosum? | located between the stratum spinosum and stratum corneum, a thin layer in which keratinocyte appearance changes |
| What is the stratum corneum? | outermost layer of dead keratinized cells of epidermis 3/4 of thickness \ |
| What are the 4 layers of the epidermis? | Stratum Basale Stratum Spinosum Stratum Granulosum Stratum Corneum |
| What are the functions of the epidermis? | waterproofing, protect from abrasion, barrier against foreign substances and assaults |
| What is the dermis? What types of cells are found here? | Second major skin region with strong, flexible connective tissue Made up of fibroblasts and macrophages |
| What are the 2 layers of the dermis? | Papillary Reticular |
| Where in the dermis are sweat and sebaceous glands found? | reticular layer |
| What does the papillary layer do? | helps attach epidermis more securely to reticular layer |
| What causes blisters? | the epidermis and dermis separate at the papillary layer and fill with fluid |
| What is the papillary layer composed of? | areolar connective tissue with collagen and elastic flbers peglike (wavy) projections |
| What are dermal papillae? | wavy peglike projections on the superior surface of the papillary layer |
| Where do friction ridges originate? | papillary layer of dermis |
| What is the reticular layer? Thickness? composition? | deepest layer of dermis 80% of skins thickness composed of dense fibrous connective tissue, collagen and elastin fibers |
| What causes stretch marks? | tearing of dermis due to extreme stretching |
| What are the 4 types of sweat glands? | eccrine sweat glands apocrine sweat glands ceruminous glands mammary glands |
| What are eccrine sweat glands? Function? | type of water based sweat gland found in soles of feet, palms, and forehead |
| What are apocrine sweat glands? Function? | found in armpits and anogenital areas, secrete bacteria and waste products |
| What are ceruminous glands? Function? | type of modified apocrine sweat gland found in external ear canal, secrete cereum (ear wax) |
| What are mammary glands? Function? | specialized sweat glands that secrete milk |
| Where can sebaceous glands be found? Function? | simple holocrine glands found all over body (rupture glands) secrete oily sebum which helps soften and lubricate skin, is bacteriostatic |
| What is the hypodermis? Composition? | subcutaneous layer deep to skin, not really part of the skin composed of adipose and areolar connective tissue |
| What are the 3 pigments which contribute to skin color? | Melanin-yellow, reddish brown, black Carotene- yellow/orange pigment (palms) Hemoglobin- red protein in red blood cells (pink skin) |
| What are the nails? Composition? | Scalelike modification of epidermis, consists of hardened keratin produced by cells of nail matrix |
| What is hair? Composition? | Filamentous strands of dead keratinized cells produced by hair follicles contain hard keratin |
| What are the parts of a hair? What pigments hair? | shaft and root medulla-core cortex cuticle-outermost layer of hair Melanocytes at base of hair |
| What is the hair bulb? What wraps around it? | expanded dermal end of hair root wrapped with sensory nerve endings (root hair plexus) |
| Hair has these which are stimulated by touch? | Touch receptors at hair bulbs |
| What are the functions of hair? | insulate alert to touch/insects protect scalp |
| Where is hair NOT found? | palms, soles, lips nipples and part of external genital |
| What are the 2 types of hair? | Vellus- pale fine, found in women/children Terminal- coarse, long hair (eyebrows, scalp, axillary and pubic |
| What are 3 hair thinning conditions? | Alopecia-hair thinning True baldness- genetically determined/sex influenced Male-pattern baldness- caused by change in follicular response to higher amounts of DHT |
| WHat are the 6 general functions of the integument? | Protection Body temperature regulation Cutaneous sensation (touch/pain receptors) Metabolic functions (Vitamin D) Blood reservoir (5%) Excretion- nitrogeneous urea and water via sweat |
| How does the body regulate it's temperature? | Dilation of dermal blood vessels-cooling Constriction of blood vessels-warming Sweat |
| How many in US will develop cancer? | 1/5 |
| Most skin tumors are ______ and do not _______. | Benign, metastasize |
| What is p53? | gene which controls tumor growth and can be disabled by exposure to UV radiation, risk for nonmelanoma skin cancers |
| What are the 3 major types of skin cancer? | Basal cell carcinoma Squamous cell carcinoma Melanoma |
| What skin cancer is the least malignant and most common? | Basal cell carcinoma (80%) |
| What causes basal cell carcinoma? How does it proliferate? How can it be cured? | stratum basale cells slowly proliferate into dermis and epidermis (don't metastasize) Can be cured by surgery in 99% of cases |
| What causes squamous cell carcinoma? How does it proliferate? How can it be cured? | keratinocytes of stratum spinosum affect scalp, ears, and lower lip by rapidly growing and metastasizing treat with surgery or radiation therapy |
| What is the most dangerous type of skin cancer? Why? | melanoma because it is highly metastatic and resistant to chemo |
| What is melanoma? What are the 4 characteristics? (ABCD) | cancer of melanocytes Asymmetry Border-irregular Color (dark) Diameter-larger than 6mm |
| What are the 2 types of partial thickness burns? | First-degree Second-degree |
| What is a first degree burn? How is it treated? | only epidermis is damaged, redness, swelling, and pain Heals w/o special treatment |
| What is a second degree burn? How is it different from a first degree burn in symptoms? How is it treated/how long to heal/scarring? | Epidermis and part of dermis is damaged blisters appear in addition to redness, swelling, and pain healing takes a few weeks, but no scarring if no infection |
| What is a full thickness burn? | third degree burn |
| What is a third degree burn? Pain? Treatment? | entire thickness of skin is damaged appearing gray, white, cherry red or black nerve endings are destroyed so no initial pain Usually require skin grafts and can be life threatening due to uncontrolled loss of water and electrolytes |
| When are burns critical? | 2nd degree- +25% of body 3rd degree- +10% of body or if on face, hands, or feet |
| What is languo? | delicate hairs covering fetus |
| What is vernix caseosa? | a waxy substance produced by sebaceous glands that protects the skin of the fetus from amniotic fluid |
| What happens to the skin and hair as a person transitions into adulthood? | skin and hair become oilier and acne due to hormonal changes |
| When does the skin begin to show the effects of environmental assaults? | age 30 |
| As you age, what happens to the epidermal cells? | replacement of cells slows and so the epidermis becomes thinner less sebum is excreted so becomes dry/itchy |
| Why are older people often intolerant to the cold? | subcutaneous fat layer thins |
| What causes wrinkles? | decreased elasticity in skin and loss of subcutaneous tissue |
| As you age, your risk of skin cancer increases, why? | fewer melanocytes and dendritic cells |
| What happesn to active hair follicles by age 50? | dramatic decrease |
| People who are exposed to UVA and UVB have more of these? | visible signs of aging including wrinkles, liver spots, blotches, and other skin damage |
| Does skeletal cartilage have blood vessels or nerves? | no |
| What surrounds the skeletal cartilage? | perichondrium (dense irregular connective tissue) which resists outward expansion |
| What are the 3 types of skeletal cartilage? | Hyaline Elastic Fibrocartilage |
| What is the most abundant skeletal cartilage? | hyaline |
| Function of hyaline cartilage? COmposition? Location? | support, flexibility, and resilience contains fine collagen fibers found in articular (ends of long bones) costal (connects ribs to sternum) respiratory (laryns and air passages) Nasal- supports nose |
| What fibers are found in elastic cartilage? Location? | elastin instead of collagen found in external ear and epiglottis |
| What is the function of fibrocartilage? Composition? Location? | highly compressed for great tensile strenght contains collagen fibers found in knee menisci and intervertebral discs |
| What are the 3 ways skeletal cartilage can grow? | Appositional Interstitial Calcification |
| What is appositional growth of cartilage? | cells in perichondrium (surrounding cover of cartilage) secrete matrix against external face of existing cartilage so just adds onto the outer layers of cartilage |
| What is interstitial growth of cartilage? | lacunae-bound chondrocytes inside cartilage divide and secrete new matrix, expanding from w/in |
| When does calcification of cartilage occur? | During normal bone growth and old age which leads to decreased motility |
| What are the 2 groups of bones? | Axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton |
| What is included int the axial skeleton? | skull, vertebral column, and rib cage |
| What is included in the appendicular skeleton? | bones of upper and lower limbs, shoulder and hips |
| How can individual bones be classified? | Long, flat, irregular |
| What are long bones? Flat bones? Irregular? | longer than wide (humerus) thin, flattened, adn curved (sternum, skull) complicated shapes, (vertebrae and pelvis) |
| What are 5 functions of bones? | supports body and cradles organs Protects brain, spinal cord and organs Movement, levers for muscles Mineral storage, CA Phosphorus Blood cell formation, in red marrow cavities |
| Why are bones organs? | Contain several tissue types osseous cartilagenous nerves hematopoietic tissue (red marrow) blood vessels adipose tissue (yellow marrow) |
| What are bone markings? | bulges, depressions and holes for sites of attachment, joint surfaces, and conduits for blood vessels and nerves |
| WHat anatomical category do bone markings belong to? | Gross anatomy |
| WHat are the 3 structure levels of bones? | gross, microscopic, chemical |
| What are bone projections? | sites of muscle (tendon) and ligament attachment and sites of joints between bones |
| What is a tuberosity? What is a tubercle? | tuberosity-rounded projection Tubercle- small rounded projection |
| What is a crest? What is a line? | crest-narrow, prominent bone ridge Line-narrow ridge of bone |
| WHat is a trohchanter? | large, blunt, irregular surface |
| What is a condyle? Epicondyle? | rounded projection of articular surface raised area above condyle |
| WHat is a spine? | a sharp slender projection |
| What is a process? | any bony prominence |
| What is a head? | a bony expansion carried on a narrow neck ie femoral head for ball socket joint |
| What is a facet? | a smooth, nearly flat articular surface |
| What is a ramus? | armlike bar of bone |
| What is a meatus? | canal-like passageway |
| What is a sinus? | bone cavity |
| What is a fossa? | shallow basin-like depression |
| What is a groove? | furrow |
| What is a fissure? | narrrow, slit like opening in bone |
| What is a foramen? | round or oval opening through a bone |
| What are the 2 bone textures? What distinguishes them? | COmpact bone- has dense outer layer Spongy bone- a honeycomb of trabeculae filled with marrow |
| What are the 2 components of a long bone? What are each component composed of? What separates the 2? | Diaphysis- tubular shaft made of compact bone containing yellow bone marrow Epiphyses, epanded ends of long bones with spongy bone interior, covered in hyaline cartilage separated by epiphyseal plate |
| What is the epiphyseal plate? | seperates diaphysis and epiphyses in long bones |
| What is the composition of short, irregular, and flat bones? What do they not have that long bones have? | thin plates of compact bone on outside (covered in periosteum) which surround endosteum covered spongy bone filled with bone marrow lack diaphysis and epiphysis |
| What is a periosteum Composition? | a double layered protective membrane attached to bones Outer fibrous layer-dense irregular connective tissue inner osteogenic layer-composed of osteoblasts and osteoclasts supplied with nerves, blood, and lymphatic vessels |
| What attaches periosteum to bone? | Sharpley's fibers |
| What is the endosteum? | a delicate membrane which covers the internal surfaces of the bone |
| Where is hematopoietic tissue found? (Infants and adults) | Infants- medullary cavity and all areas of spongy bone Adults-found in the diploe (spongy bone) of flat bones and head of femur and humerus |
| What is the structureal unit of compact bone? | Haversian system or osteon |
| What are the 3 main parts of the osteon? | Lamella-weight bearing tubes composed of collagen and calcified matri Haversian canal-central channel with blood vessels and nerves Volkmann's canals-perpendicular to central canals, connect blood and nerve supply of periosteum to Haversian canal |
| What is an osteocyte? Where are they found? What connects these? | a mature bone cell found in lacunae connected by canaliculi which also connect to haversian canal |
| What are two types of osteocytes? | Osteoblasts- form bone matrix Osteoclasts- reabsorb bone matrix |
| What is an osteoid? | unmineralized bone matrix composed of ground substance and collagen |
| What are the organic components of bones? | Osteocytes and osteoid |
| What are the inorganic components of bone? Proportion of bone? Composition? FUnction | Hydroxyapatites - mineral salts 65% of bone mass composed of calcium phosphate crystals which make the bones hard and resist compression |
| What is osteogenesis? | process of bone tissue formation in infants, growth into adulthood, thickening, remodeling and repair |
| When does osteogenesis begin in embryos? Two types | 8th week Intramembranous ossificiation from a fibrous membrane (skull and clavicles) Endochondral ossification bone replaces hyaline cartilage (long bones) |
| What are the 4 stages of intramembranous ossification? | Ossification center appears bone matrix is secreted woven bone and periosteum form bone collar of Compact bone forms and lamellar bone replaces woven bone and red marrow appears |
| When does endochondrial ossification begin? How? | 2nd month embryo breakdown of hyaline cartilage for ossification |
| How do long bones grow in length? | cartilage closest to epiphysis is resting cartilage proximal to that form 3 zones, growth, transformation and osteogenic |
| What are the 3 zones for epiphyseal growth? | Growth-cartilage cells are mitotic, pushing epiphysis away from diaphysis Transformation- older cells grow, matrix becomes calcified, cartilage cells die and old matrix deteriorates Osteogenic zone, new bone formation occurs |
| What stimulates bone growth? | growth and sex steroid hormones |
| How does appositional bone growth occur? | Osteoblasts under periosteum secrete bone matrix fills in and creates ridges bony ridges enlarge and meet forming tunnel around blood vessel Periosteum lining in tunnel becomes endosteum osteoblasts secrete bone matrix to fill canal and create osteons |
| What regulates bone growth during infancy and childhood? | growth hormones |
| What regulates bone growth during puberty? | sex hormones promote growth spurts, gender skeleton, induce epiphyseal plate closure stopping height growth |
| Where does bone remodeling and deposition take place? | where bone is injured or added strength is needed |
| What are some requirements for bone remodeling? | diet=protein, C, D, A, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and manganese, ALkaline Phosphatase |
| What reveals sites of new bone matrix deposition? | Osteoid seam-unmineralized band of bone matrix Calcification front-transition zone between osteoid seam and older bone |
| What are resorption bays? | grooves formed by osteoclasts as they break down bone matrix through lysosomal enzymes and acids dissolved matrix is secreted into blood |
| What are the 2 control loops which regulate bone remodeling? | Hormonal mechanism-maintains calcium homeostasis in blood Mechanical/gravitational forces-acting on skeleton |
| How does hormonal bone remodeling regulation work? | Rising Ca levels in blood trigger thyroid to release calcitonin -> calcium salt deposition Low Ca in blood causes parathyroid to release PTH, osteoclasts degrade bone matrix, release Ca into blood |
| Calcium homeostasis in blood is a +/- feedback loop? | Negative |
| What is Wolff's law? | a bone will grow/remodel in response to forces placed upon it bones thickest where most stress trabeculae form in spongy bone along stress lines large projections occur where heavy active muscles attach |
| In what 4 ways are bone fractures classified? | position of bone ends after fracture completeness of break orientation of break to long axis bone ends penetrate skin |
| What are the 2 position bone fracture classifications? | Nondisplaced-bone ends retain normal position Displaced-bone ends are out of normal alignment |
| What are the 2 completeness bone fracture classifications? | Complete-broken all the way through Incomplete-bone is NOT broken all the way through |
| What are the 2 orientation bone fracture classifications? | Linear- fracture // to long axis Transverse- fracture is _|_ to long axis of bone |
| What are the 2 skin penetration bone fracture classifications? | Compound-bone ends penetrate skin Simple-bone ends do NOT penetrate skin |
| IS it possible to have a displaced incomplete fracture? | No |
| What do you call a fracture with 3 or more bone fragments, common in elderly? | Comminuted fracture |
| What do you call a fracture when the bone is crused, common in porous bones? | Compression fracture |
| What do you call a fracture which causes a ragged break when excessive twisting forces are applied to a bone, common in sports? | Spiral fracture |
| What do you call a fracture when the epiphysis separates from the diaphysis along the epiphyseal plate common where cartilage cells are dying? | Epiphyseal fracture |
| What do you call a fracture when the broken bone portion is pressed inward, typical of skull fracture? | Depressed fracture |
| What do you call a fracture when the bone breaks incompletely, one side of shaft breaks but not all the way through, common in children? | Greenstick fracture |
| What are the 4 stages of healing a bone fracture? | Hematoma forms Fibrocartilaginous callus forms Bony callus forms Bone remodeling occurs |
| Why does a hematoma form to heal a fracture? | blood vessels tear, blood clots (hematoma) at fracture site, swells, painful inflamed |
| What is a hematoma? | Blood clot |
| How does a fibrocartilaginous callus form to heal a fracture? | Granulation tissue forms, capillaries grow into tissue and phagocytes clean debris, fibroblasts secrete collagen fibers to connect broken bone ends, osteoblasts form spongy bone |
| How does a bony callus form to heal a fracture? | New trabeculae appear in fibrocartilaginous callus which then converts into a bony callus, begins 3-4 weeks after injury and continues until healed 2-3 months later |
| Why does bone remodeling occur to heal a fracture? | Removes excess material on bone shaft and in medullary canal, compact bone is laid to reconstruct shaft walls |
| What are 3 homeostatic bone imbalances? | Osteomalacia in adults Rickets in children Osteoporosis |
| What is osteomalacia? Symptoms? Cause | in adults, bones are inadequately mineralized, pain when weight placed on bones, caused by inadequate calcium in diet or Vit D deficiency |
| What is rickets? Symptoms? Cause? | same as osteomalacia, but in children, caused by inadequately mineralized bones due to insufficient calcium or Vitamin D, causes bowed legs and pelvic, skull, and rib deformities |
| What is osteoporosis? What is most vulnerable? Who is most vulnerable? Treatment? | bone reabsorption outpaces bone deposition spongy bone of spine greatly affected in postmenopausal women, bones excessively fragile Calcium and D, weight bearing exercise, Hormone replacement therapy reduces osteoclasts, statins stimulate osteoblasts |
| How many bones are in the axial skeleton? What are the 3 regions of the axial skeleton? | 80 bones in 3 regions, Skull Vertebral Column Bony Thorax |
| What are the 2 parts of the skull? | Cranium and facial bones |
| What is the structure and function of the cranium? | thin and strong bones which protects brain and site of attachment for head/neck muscles |
| How many cranial bones? List them | 8 2 Parietal 2 Temporal 1 Occipital 1 Frontal 1 Sphenoid 1 Ethmoid |
| What are wormian bones? | part of the cranium, tiny irregularly shaped bones in the sutures between main bones of cranium |
| What is the function of the facial bone? | framework of face, sense organs and teeth openings for passage of food and air anchor facial muscles for expression |
| How many facial bones? What are they? | 2 maxillae 2 zygomatics 2 nasals 2 lacrimals 2 palatines 2 inferior conchae 1 mandible 1 vomer |
| WHy does the spine have curvatures? | to increase flexibility and resilience of spine |
| Describe the structure of the vertebral column. | 26 irregular bones (vertebrae) which are connected to form a flexible, curved structure |
| What are the 5 types of bones in the vertebral column? | 7 cervical vertebrae 12 Thoracic vertebrae 5 Lumbar vertebrae 1 sacrum (actually 5 small vertebrae that fuse) 1 coccyx (actually 4 small vertebrae that fuse by age 30) |
| Which vertebral column curves are posterorly concave? | cervical and lumbar |
| Which vertebral column curves are posteriorly convex? | thoracic and sacral |
| What is scoliosis? Lordosis? Kyphosis? | S-an abnormal lateral spine curve L-excessive lumbar curve (swayback) K-hunch back from excessive thoracic curve |
| What are the 3 main vertebral column ligaments? Function? | anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments are continuous bands down spine from neck to sacrum Short ligaments connect adjoining vertebrae |
| What is the function and composition of interertebral discs? | connective tissue pad consisting of the nucleus pulposis which is the inner softer nucleus that makes disc elastic and compressible and the annulus fibrosis which surrounds the NP w/ layer of collagen and fibrocartilage for support |
| What happens when a intervertebral disc is herniated? | the nucleus pulposus expands into the anulus fibrosus of the disc |
| What is the structure of the vertebra? | body weight bearing vertebral arch-upper portion of vertebral foramen makes up the vertebral canal for spinal cord spinous processes project posteriorly transverse p project laterally superior/inferior articular process protrude from pedicle-lamina |
| What are intrervertebral foramina? | lateral openings formed from notched areas on adjacent pedicles through which nerves protrude |
| What are the 2 special cervical vertebrae? | Atlas-C1 Axis-C2 |
| What is special about the atlas? | first cervical vertebra, has no body or spinous process superior surfaces of lateral masses articulate with occipital condyles of the skull |
| What is special about the axis? | second cervical vertebrae has a body, spine, and vertebral arches like other vertebrae also has the dens (odontoid process) upon which the atlas pivots |
| What is the dens r odontoid process? | special projection of the axis upon which the atlas rotates |
| What is the bony thorax composed of? | part of the axial skeleton, composed of thoracic vertebrae dorsally, ribs laterally, and sternum and costal cartilages anteriorly |
| What is the function of the thoracic cage? | protects heart, lungs, and large blood vessels, supports shoulder girdles and upper limbs attachment site for many muscles uses intercostal muscles to lift/depress thorax during breathing |
| How many ribs are there? True ribs? False ribs? Floating ribs? | 12 T-1-7 F-8-12 Floating-11-12 |
| What makes up the upper appendicular skeleton? | Pectoral girdles arm, forearm, and hand |
| Composition and function of pectoral girdles | Attach upper limbs to the axial skeleton to allow for multi-axial movement, also provide attachment points for muscles that move upper limbs, include the clavicles and scapula |
| What makes up the upper limb? How many bones form skeletal framework for each upper limb? | brachium, antebrachium, and manus (37 bones) |
| What bone makes up the brachium (arm)? articulates with? Injury? | humerus articulate w/ scapula and radius/ulna loosely attached glenohumeral joint is easily dislocated (between head of humerus and scapula) |
| What makes up the antebrachium (forearm)? Articulates with? What is the function of the interosseous membrane? | radius and ulna articulate with the humerus and the carpals as well as proximally to each other at small MOVEABLE radioulnar joints R/U connected by interosseous membrane along entire length |
| Does the shoulder girdle directly articulate with the rib cage? | No |
| Structure of the hand? How many bones? What is special about the thumb? | 8 carpals (wrist bones) 5 metacarpals (palm bones) 14 phalanges opposable thumb (pollex) allows us to grip objects |
| What makes up the lower appendicular skeleton? | Pelvic girdle Lower limb consisting of thigh, leg, and foot |
| Structure/Function of pelvic girdle | attaches lower limbs to axial skeleton formed by a pair of coxal bones (hip bones) |
| What is the function of the coxal bones, sacrum and coccyx? | attach lower limbs to axial skeleton with strongest ligaments of body, transmit weight of body to ower limbs supports abdominopelvic organs |
| What are the 3 parts of a coxal bone? What connects the two os coxae? | Superior-Ilium Medial- Pubis Inferior-Ischium connected by pubic symphysis (cartilage) andn base of sacrum |
| What are 3 major differences between the male/female pelvis? | F-tilted forward for childbearing F-true pelvis defines birth canal an is not for supporting heavier male build F-cavity of true pelvis is broad, shallow, and has greater capacity where as M is narrow and deep |
| What are the 3 segments of the lower limb? Function? | thigh, leg, foot carry weight of erect body and are subjected to large forces (running/jumping) |
| Structure/function/articulation of thigh | Femur is largest and strongest bone in body, articulates Proximally with pelvis and distally with tibia/fibula |
| Structure/function/articulation of lower leg | tibia (weight bearing bone) and fibula (stabilizes ankle)connected by interosseous membrane(like R/U), articulate with each othervia IMMOVABLE tibiofibular joints, articulate proximally with femur and distally with tarsals |
| Function of tibia? Fibula? | tibia is a weight bearing bone fibula stabilizes ankle |
| Structure/function of the foot | tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges supports body weight and acts as a lever to propel the body forward (walk/run) |
| How are the tarsals different than wrist bones? | much heavier because they are weight bearing |
| What are the two large foot bones? Function? | Talus-articulates with tibia to form ankle joint Calcaneous- forms heel of foot and site of attachment for Achilles tendon |
| What is the site of attachment of the Achilles tendon? | Calcaneous |
| How many arches does the foot have? Describe. | 3 Lateral longitudinal-relatively flat arch on side of foot Medial longitudinal- high arch in middle of foot Transverse- runs from one side of foot to other |
| How are the foot arches maintained? Why do they exist at all? | interlocking foot bones and strong ligaments maintain foot arches which are needed due to segmented foot anatomy |
| The infant skull has more/less bones than the adult skull. | More |
| What connects the incomplete fetal skull bones? What are these made of? | fontanels which are the unossified remnants of fibrous membranes between fetal skull bones |
| What are the 4 fetal fontanels? | anterior, posterior, mastoid, and sphenoid |
| Which fontanel is known as the soft spot? | anterior |
| At birth the cranium is _____ relative to the face. What happens to mandible and maxilla with age? How do the arms and legs grow compared to the head/trunk? | huge cranium at birth small mandible and maxilla lengthen with age arms and legs grow much faster than trunk and head-> adult proportions |
| What spinal curvatures are present at birth? How are they shaped and how does this affect the spine arch? | thoracic and sacral which are posteriorly convex causing a C-curve to spine |
| Are infants born with secondary curvatures? WHat are these? | no, they develop the cervical and lumbar posteriorly concave curves develop as the child ages |
| What happens to the intervertebral discs as one ages? | become thin, less hydrated and less elastic, risk of herniation increases, all causing eight shrinkage after 55 |
| What happens to the costal cartilages as one ages? | ossify causing the thorax to become more rigid |
| What happens to all bones as one ages? | lose mass |
| What is an articulation (joint)? Strength? | site where two or more bones meet, weakest part of skeleton |
| What are the functions of articulations? | mobility and hold skeleton together |
| Anthrology | study of joints |
| Kinesiology | study of musculoskeletal movement |
| How are joints classified? | Structure (fibrous, cartilagenous, bony, synovial) Function (Diarthrosis-greatest movement, amphiarthrosis, and synarthrosis (no movement)) |
| What doe the functional classification diarthrosis mean? Amphiarthrosis? Synarthrosis? | d- lots of movement a-intermediate movement s- no movement |
| What ae fibrous joints composed of? Joint cavity? Typical functional classification? What are the 3 types? | bones are joined by fibrous tissues w/ NO joint cavity, most are synarthroses (no movement) sutures, syndemoses and gomphoses are fibrous joints |
| What are sutures? Composition? Function? What is special about them as one ages? | fibrous joints found between the bones of the skull comprised of interlocking junctions filled with connective tissue fibers bind bones together but allow for growth until they fuse into synostoses in middle age |
| What are the 3 types of sutures? which is the strongest/weakest | Serrate suture (high Surface Area b/c jagged like dovetail joint) strongest Lap suture (medium surface area b/c of oblique / shape) plane suture (low surface area b/c of | shape, weakest) |
| What type of joint is found in the coronal, sagittal, and lamboid sutures? | fibrous serrate suture |
| What type of joint is found in the temporal and parietal sutures? | fibrous lap sutures |
| What type of suture is found between the palatine bones? | fibrous plane suture (can see this if you look at roof of mouth) |
| What are syndemoses? Movement? Example? | a fibrous joint found between bones like the tibia/fibula and radius/ulna in which bones are ocnnected by fibrous tissue ligaments. Allows for no movement or very little |
| Where can syndemoses be found? | between radius and ulna and tibia and fibula |
| What is a gomphoses? Where is it found? | a fibrous joint found only in the peg/socket fibrous joint between a tooth and its alveolar socket connected by the periodontal ligament |
| What are cartilaginous joints? Joint cavity? Types? | a structural classification in which cartilage unites articulating bones with NO joint cavity Synchondroses and symphyses |
| What is a synchondroses? Functional classification? Example | a type of cartilaginous joint in which a bar/plate of HYALINE cartilage unites bones Always synarthrotic epiphyseal plate in children joint between costal cartilage of first rib and sternum |
| What is a symphyses? Functional classification? Example? | a cartilaginous joint in which hyaline cartilage covers the end of the bone and fuses with a pad of fibrocartilage to reduce rubbing Always amphiarthrotic, designed to be strong and a little flexible, found in intervertebal joints and pubic symphysis |
| What type of joint is found at the pubic symphysis? Structural and Functional classification? | a symphyses cartiaginous joint which is amphiarthrotic for some movement |
| What is a bony joint? Functional classification? Example? | two or more bones become fused by osseous tissue and are thus SYNARTHROTIC because they cannot move Ex- mandible, frontal bones, sacrum, coccyx |
| What is a synovial joint? Functional classification? Example? | joints in which articulating bones are separated by a fluid-containing joint cavity freely moving diarthroses all limb joints and most joints of the body |
| What do ALL synovial joints have? | articular cartilage synovial cavity articular capsule synovial fluid reinforcing ligaments |
| What determies joint stability in synovial joints? | articular surfaces determine what movements are possible Ligaments unite bones and prevent undesirable motion |
| What is the structural and functional classification of the knee joints? | synoviaal, diarthrotic |
| What reduces friction in the freely moving synovial joints? | Bursae-flattened fibrous sacs lined with synovial membranes and filled with synovial fluid (where ligaments, muscles, and bones rub) Tendon sheath, elongated bursa that wraps completely around a tendon |
| What are the 2 muscle attachments across a synovial joint called? | Origin-attachment to IMMOVABLE bone Insertion-attachment to MOVABLE bone |
| In what 4 ways can movement occur in synovial joints? | Nonaxial-gliding movements only (intertarsal) Uniaxial-movement in one plane (elbow) Biaxial-movement in 2 planes (fingers) Multiaxial-movement in all 3 planes (shoulder) |
| What are the 6 angular movements a synovial joint can make? | Flexionn Extension DOrsiflexion Abduction Adduction Circumduction |
| What is flexion? | a synovial joint angular bending movement that decreases the angle of the joint |
| What is extension? | a synovial joint angular bending movement that increases the angle of a joint |
| What is dorsiflexion and plantarflexion? | up/down movement of foot |
| What is abduction? | a synovial joint angular bending movement away from the midline |
| What is adduction | a synovial joint angular bending movement toward the midline |
| What is circumduction? | a synovial joint angular bending movement that describes a cone in space |
| What is rotational movement? Example? | turning a bone around its own long axis (C1 and C2 vertebrae, Hip/shoulder joints) |
| What is pronation and supination? | special movements where, in pronation, the radius rotates over the ulna and in supination, they are // |
| What is inversion and eversion? | special foot movements, turn foot in and out |
| What is opposition? | a special synovial joint movement between thumb and fore fingers |
| The types of synovial joints are based on articular surface shape. What are the 6 types of joints? | Plane joints Hinge joints Pivot joints Condyloid joints Saddle joints Ball and socket joints |
| In a plane joint, what do the articular surfaces look like? What motion do they allow for? Examples? | flat surfaces allow for gliding movements of nonaxial joints in intercarpal and intertarsal joints |
| In a hinge joint, what do the articular surfaces look like? What type of motion do they allow for? Example? | cylindrical projection of one bone fits into trough shaped (C) on another, allow for uniaxial movement which permit flexion and extension only as in the elbow |
| In a pivot joint, what do the articular surfaces look like? What type of motion do they allow for? Example? | rounded end of one bone protrudes into a ring of bone/ligaments, allow for uniaxial movement of the axis along the dens and the proximal radioulnar joint |
| In a condyloid (ellipsoidal joint, what do the articular surfaces look like? What type of motion do they allow for Examples? | Oval surface of one bone fits into a complementary depression of another oval articular surface permitting biaxial movement (angular motion) in first knuckle (metacarpophalangeal) joints |
| IN a saddle joint, what do they articular surfaces look like? What types of motion do they allow for? Examples? | like a condyloid joint, but allow for more movement because each surface has a concave and convex surface like in the carpometacarpal thumb joint |
| In a ball and socket joint, what do the articular surfaces look like? What type of motion do they allow for? Examples? | spherical head of one bone articulates with cup socket of another to permit multiaxial joint's free movement like in the shoulder and hip |
| Ligaments connect ____ to bone while tendons connect ______ to bone> | L-bone to bone T-muscle to bone |
| What is special about the knee? | largest and most complex synovial joint of the body |
| What movements does the knee allow for? | flexion, extension, and some rotation |
| What three joints are part of the knee joint cavity? | Femoropatellar Lateral and Medial tibiofemoral joint |
| What are the anterior superficial structures of the knee? | tendon of the quadriceps femoris muscle, lateral/medial patellar retinaculum patellar ligament, fibular (FCL) and tibial (TCL) collateral ligaments collateral ligament (FCL<TCL) |
| What are the anterior internal structures of the knee? | ACL, PCL, medial meniscus, lateral meniscus |
| What are some very common and severe knee injuries? | TCL tear Medial meniscus tear ACL tear |
| Where are cartilage tears common? Describe healing process. Treatment? | common in menisci on joints, cartilage is not vascular so heals very slowly, fragments of cartilage floating in joint that are removed through arthroscopic surgery |
| What are sprains, what causes them? Describe healing process. Treatment? | reinforcing ligaments of a joint are stretched/torn partial tears heal very slowly complete tears can be treated by sewing them together, replacing with graft, or immobilizing joint until it heals |
| What are dislocations, what causes them? Describe healing process. Treatment? | displaced bone ends, result from sport injuries or falls commonly dislocate same joints due to stretching of ligaments and loosening of joint capsule |
| What is bursitis? Causes? Symptoms? Treatment? | an inflammation of a bursa (fluid filled sac around the synovial joint)caused by a blow or chronic friction causes pain and swelling treated with anti-inflammatory drugs and aspiration of excess fluid |
| What is tendonitis? causes? Symptoms and treatment? | inflammation of tendon sheaths caused by overuse causes swelling and pain treated with anti inflammatory drugs |
| What is arthritis? How many different types? | more than 100 different types of inflammatory or degenerative diseases that damage the joints |
| What is the most widespread crippling disease in the US. | Arthritis |
| What are the symptoms of arthritis? | pain, stiffness, and swelling of a joint |
| What are the two types of arthritis? | acute and chronic |
| What causes acute arthritis? Treatment | bacteria treated with antibiotics |
| What are three chronic forms of arthritis? | osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, gouty arthritis |
| How common is osteoarthritis? Higher in men or women? What joints are most affected? What age group is most affected? | most common, called wear and tear arthritis, higher incidence in women than men, prevalent in aged ac cartilage is destroyed especially in the spine, fingers, knuckles, knees and hips |
| How is osteoarthritis treated? | slowly progresses but is irreversible, treat with pain relievers and moderate activity, magnetic therapy, glucosamine sulfate, and joint replacement |
| What is rheumatoid arthritis? Cause? when do you typically get it? Symptoms? | chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease with no known cause, typically occurs at age 40-50, symptoms include joint tenderness anemia, ostoporosis, muscle atrophy, and cardiovascular problems exacerbations and remissions |
| What is the progression of rheumatoid arthritis? | begins with synovitis, inflammatory immune cells migrate into joint, release chemicals=swelling, inflamed synovial membrane thickens into pannus which erodes cartilage, forms scar tissue, and articulating bone ends grind together resulting in ankylosis |
| What is ankylosis? | bent deformed fingers and toes caused by articulating bone ends grinding together |
| What are the 2 treatments for RA? | conservative therapy-pain relievers, steroids/NSAIDS, long-term antibiotics and PT Progressive treatment-anti-inflammatory drugs/immunosuppressants Enbrel-neutralizes harmful properties of inflammatory hormone TNF in advanced RA |
| WHat causes gouty arthritis? What does it typically affect? How does it progress if untreated? Treatment? | deposition of uric acid crystals in joint and soft tissues with inflammation, affects joint at base of big toe which will eventually fuse and immobilize joint if untreated by colchine (chemotherapy), nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and glucocorticoid |
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