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Cell Biology
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Cell Biology is described as what? | A Reductionist |
| What is Reductionism? | It is the belief that studying the parts that makes up a system can explain the system. |
| The discovery of cells followed from what? | The microscope |
| Hooke discovered what microscope? | the double lens microscope |
| Leewenhoek discovered what microscope? | single lens microscope |
| What are the 3 points to the Cell Theory? | -All organisms are composed of one or more cells -The cell is the structural unit of life -Cells arise from pre-existing cells by division |
| What is the most basic property of a cell? | Life |
| For extended periods of time cells can grow and reproduce where? | In cultures |
| What are HeLa cells? | Cultured tumor cells isolated from a cancer patient |
| What do cells from different species share similarity wise? | structure, composition and metabolic features |
| Cells posses what? As well as a means to use it. | Genetic Program |
| What do genes encode? | information to build each cell. So information for cellular reproduction, activity and structure. |
| What happens when cells reproduce? | Each daughter cells receives a complete set of genetic instructions |
| What do cells aquire and utilize? | Energy |
| What does Photosynthesis provide? | Fuel for all living organisms |
| Animal cells derive energy from the products of photosythesis, mainly in the form of what? | Glucose |
| What do cells convert in order to get energy? | Glucose to ATP |
| What are the 7 Basic Properties of cells? | -Cells aquire and use energy, they carry out various chemical reactions, engage in mechanical activities, respond to stimuli, self regulation and evolution |
| How are Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells distinguished? | By their size and type of organelles |
| What do Eukaryotes include? | Protists, Animals, Plants and Fungi |
| What is the Bio-geologiccal clock? | Proposed appearance time for major groups of organisms |
| Name 3 things in common with Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes. | Plasma membrane, Genetic information encoded in DNA, Metabolic Pathway. |
| What are the 5 characteristics that distinguish prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells? | Complexity, Cytoplasm, Cellular Reproduction, Locomotion, Genetic Material. |
| What cell is the most complex? | Eukaryotic |
| How do prokaryotes divide? | Simple fission |
| What are the 3 steps to Genetic Material? | Packaging, Amount, Form |
| What are the two types of prokaryotic cells? | Archae and Bacteria |
| What is Nitrogen Fixation? | It is the process in which atmospheric Nitrogen is converted into ammonium. |
| How are prokaryotes identified and classified? | On the basis of specific DNA sequences. |
| What are the 2 types of Eukaryotes? | Unicellular and Multicellular |
| When and where does Differentiation occur? | It occurs in multicellular eukaryotes during embryonice development |
| What are stem cells? | Undifferentiated cells capable of self-renewal and differentiation. |
| What do Hematopoeitic stem cells do? | Produce blood cells in bone marrow |
| Embryonic Stem Cells have greater what? | Potential for differentiation than adult stems cells. |
| What units of measure are common in cells? | Micrometers and Nanometers |
| What 3 things limit the size of the cell? | By the volume of the cytoplam that is supported by the genes in the nucleus, volume supported by exchange of the nutrients, and distance by which the exchange of substances. |
| What is Synthetic Biology? | It is a field oriented to create a living cell in a laboratory. |
| In order to perform Synthetic Biology what do you need? | Nucleic acids, proteins and lipids |
| What are Viruses? | They're pathogens that are also a type of parasite |
| What is a Virion? | A virus particle outside of the host cell |
| What is a Viroid? | A pathogen consisting of a small naked RNA molecule. |
| How do Viroids cause diseases? | Interfering with gene expression in host cells. |
| How do viruses bind to the surface of the host cell? | With proteins |
| What is Lytic infection? | When the virus redirects the host into making more virus particles in which the cell lyses and then releases the virus. |
| What is Integration? | When the virus integrates its DNA into the host cells chromosomes. |
| What is a Provirus? | Virus DNA |
| What is the Endosymbiont Theory? | That organelles in Eukaryotic cells evolved from smaller prokaryotic cells. |
| What are the 3 lineages that Woese proposed? | Bacteria, Archae and Eucarya |
| What is the result of Lateral gene transfer? | Organisms with the both parental DNA and DNA from other organisms in the environment. |
| CHAPTER 4 | |
| What is the Plasma Membrane? | The outer boundary that of the cell seperates it from the world |
| What is compartmentalization? | When membranes form continuous sheets that enclose intracellular compartments. |
| What is Scaffold for biochemical activities? | Its when membranes provide a framework that organizes enzymes for effective interaction. |
| What does the selectively permeable layer allow? | Regulated exchange of substances between compartments. |
| During the Transportation of solutes, what facilitates the movement of substance between the compartments? | Membrane proteins |
| What are the 7 functions of the membrane? | Compartmentalization, Scaffold for biochemical activities, Selectively permeable layer, transportation of solutes, Responding to external signals, intracellular interaction, and Energy transduction. |
| How does the membrane respond to external signals? | With membrane receptors transduce signals from outside the cell in responce to specific ligands. |
| How do the cells interact? | Membranes mediate recognition and interaction between adjacent cells |
| How does energy transduction work? | Membranes transduce photosynthetic energy, convert chemical energy to ATP, and store energy |
| What were membranes found to be mostly composed of and why? | mostly composed of lipids because their dissolving power matched that of oil |
| What is accounted for a 2:1 ratio of lipid to cell surface? | Lipid bilayer |
| What is the nature and importance of the Lipid Bilayer? | Lipid composition influences the activity of membrane proteins as well as the physical state and the Cohesion of bilayers facilitates spliting and fusion of membranes. |
| What do protein lined pores in the membrane account for? | the movement of polar solutes and ions across cell boundaries |
| The Fluid Mosaic Model is? | Membrane proteins that form a mosaic of particles that penetrate the lipids. |
| What are the 3 types of amphipatic membrane lipids? | Phosphoglycerides, Sphingolipids, and Cholesterol |
| What does amphipatic mean? | when it has both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts. |
| What are Phosphoglycerides? | they are diaglycerides with small head groups linked to glycerol backbone |
| What are Sphinglipids? | Ceramides that are formed by the attachment sphingosine to fatty acids |
| What is Cholesterol? | a smaller less amphipatic lipid that is only found in animals. |
| The -OH group in Cholesterol is oriented to where? | the membrane surface |
| What is a liposome? | A synthetic vesicle |
| Liipid gives the membrane the ability to what? (3 things) | Fuse, form networks, and seperate charges |
| What are the 3 dynamic properties of plasma membranes? | Movement, Division, Fusion |
| What is an example of Movement of plasma membranes? | The ruffling of the plasma membrane of a migrating cell |
| What is an example of Division in the plasma membrane? | Invagination of the plasma membrane towards the cells center during cell division |
| What is an example of fusion?(plasma membrane) | Plasma membranes of sperms and eggs unite. |
| Inner and outer leaflets have different lipid compositions. True or False? | True |
| Why do Glycoproteins have short, branched carbohydrates? | For interactions with other cells and structures outside of the cell |
| What are the 3 distinct groups that the membrane proteins can be grouped into? | Integral proteins, Peripheral proteins and Lipid-anchored membrane proteins |
| What is special about Integral proteins? | They penetrate and pass through lipid bilayer. They are amphipatic with hydrophilic outside of the lipid and hydrophobic on the inside. They have channel proteins. |
| What is special with the Peripheral proteins? | They attach to the membrane by weak bonds and can easily be solubilized. They are located outside of the bilayer. |
| What is special about Lipid-anchored membrane proteins? | They have GPI-linked proteins found on the outer leaflet |
| What does the Freeze factor technique do? | Divides the phospholipid leaflets of the membrane. |
| How do you determine membrane sidedness? | The orientation of integral proteins can be determined using non-penetrating agents that label proteins |
| What does SDS do? | denatures proteins. |
| What does Triton X-100 (non ionic) | does not alter protein tertiary structure. |
| How do you identify some spatial relationships? | When you replace specific amino acids with others. |
| What is EPR spectroscopy used for? | To monitor changes in conformation of a bacterial K ion channel as it opens and closes |
| Where do membrane lipids exist? What is it dependent on? | Exist in gel or liquid-crystal phases and are dependent on temperature, lipid concentration, and saturation in the presence of cholesterol |
| What is the structure of a lipid bilayer dependant on? | Temperature whether its below or above the transition temperature |
| What does membrane fluidity do? | Makes it possible for proteins to move in the membrane and for membranes to assemble and grow |
| How do they maintain membrane fluidity? | As temperature changes altering the composition of membrane lipids |
| When Cholesterol and Sphingolipids pack together to form microdomains what is that called? | Lipid rafts |
| What do lipid rafts do? | provide favorable environment for cell-surface receptors and GPI-anchored proteins. |
| What is the Cell fusion technique? | Where 2 different types of cells, or species cells, can be fused in order to form one cell with a common cytoplasm and a single continous plasma membrane |
| How can Cell Fusion be induced? | by certain viruses or polyethylene glycol |
| What are 2 ways to track and label proteins? | Fluorescent recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) and Single particle tracking (SPT) |
| Protein movements are slower than predicted. True or False? | True |
| How are proteins movements limited? | Interactions with the cytoskeleton, other proteins, and extracellular materials. |
| Phospholipid is not restricted to the the bilayer. True or False? | False |
| How are phospholipids movements? | They are confined for very brief periods o certain areas and then hop from one confined space to another |
| What are the fences restricting the motion of the phospholipids? | integral membrane proteins |
| What is Band 3 of the Erythrocyte plasma membrane composed of? | 2 homodimers of a glycoproteinthat exchanges Cl- and HCO3- across the red cell membrane |
| What is Glycophorin A? | A dimer with 16 oligossacharides that may prevent red cell clumping |
| What is the major component of of the Internal membrane skeleton? | Spectrin |
| What does Selective permeability allow? | Seperation and exchange of materials across the plasma membrane |
| What is Net flux? | The difference between influx and efflux. |
| How does flux occur? | Active transport or passive diffusion |
| What are the 4 basic mechanisms by which solute molecules move across a membrane? | Passive, Active, Nonmediated, and Transporter mediated |
| What is Diffusion? | The spontaneous movement of material form a high concentration to that of a lower concentration. |
| Lipid permeability is determined by what? | The partition coefficient which is the molecular size and coefficient. |
| When does osmosis occur? | When water is diffused through a semi permeable membrane |
| What is the difference between Hypotonic, Hypertonic and Isotonic solutions? | Water gain, water loss and no loss or gain |
| In plant cells what happens when the solution is Hypotonic? | its develops turgor to prevent from swelling |
| In plant cells what happens in Hypertonic solutions? | The plant undergoes Plasmolysis |
| What are Aquaporins? | Specialized protein channels that allow passive movement |
| How do ions cross membranes? | Through ion channels |
| What does the pore domain permit? | the selective passage of K+ ions |
| What is the voltage sensing domain? | It consists of S1-S4 helices that senses the voltage across the plasma membrane |
| What are the 3 states that the K channel can exist in? | Rest, Open and Inactive |
| Large hydrophilic substances require what to cross over? | Facilitative transporter |
| What is Facilitative diffusion? | Passive, Specific, Saturable and Regulated |
| What is Active Transport? | The movement of ion or molecules across a cell membrane. It gradients substances to ATP hydrolysis |
| What is Co-Transport? | It is when 2 substances are transported across a cell membrane simultaneously by one protein or protein complex which does not have ATPase activity |
| What is Secondary Transport? | The use of energy stored in an ionic gradient |
| What are Neurons? | Specialized cells for information transmission using changes in membrane potential |
| What do Dendrites do? | Receives incoming information |
| What does the Axon do? | Conducts outgoing impulses |
| What is the protective layer wrapped around the Neurons? | Myelin-sheath |
| What is the Resting potential? | It is the membrane potential of a nerve or muscle cell, subject to changes when activated |
| What is the Nernst equation used to calculate? | The volateg equivalent of the concentration gradients for specific ions |
| Depolarization is when what happens? | Cells are stimulated and Na+ channels open |
| What do Action Potentials produce? | depolarization which results in nerve impulses |
| The Myelin sheath causes Saltatory Conduction which means what? | The increase in conduction of impulses |
| Where do Presynaptic neurons and postsynaptic neurons communicate? | At specialized junctions called synapse |
| Presynaptic neurons release chemicals called what to postsynapticc receptors? | Neurotransmitters |
| What is Cystic Fibrosis? | A disease that causes abnormal fluid secretions form tissues and caused by defective chloride channels |
| CHAPTER 5 | |
| What do anaerobes do? | capture and utiize energy by oxygen independent metabolism |
| In Eukaryotes where does Aerobic respiration take place? | Mitochondrion |
| What is a major determinant for the balance between fusion and fission? | Mitochondrial number, length and degree of interconnection |
| The inner and outer molecules encloses what 2 spaces? | Matrix and Intermembrane space |
| What are the 2 interconnected domains of the inner mitochondrial? | inner boundary membrane and Cristae, which is where the machinery for ATP is located |
| The outer membrabne of the mitochondrial contains a large pore-forming protein called what? | A Porin |
| What does the Porin motif do? | Forms an opening for passage of moderate-sized molecules. |
| What does Glycolysis do? | produces pyruvate, NADH, and 2 molecules of ATP and Acetyl CoA enters the next stage |
| What does the Tricarboxylic Acid (TCA)cycle do? | The Acetyl CoA is condensed with the four-carbon oxaloacetate to forma a 6 carbon citrate. It forms NADH and FADH2 from NAD and FAD+ |
| What happens to the NADH formed in the TCA cycle? | It enters the Mitochondria |
| What is the importance of reduced coenzymes? | electrons move through the electron transport chain and ATP is formed by that controlled movement. |
| What is Chemiosmosis? | The coupling of H+ translocation to ATP synthesis |
| How much ATP is formed per NADH and FADH? | 3 and 2 |
| What are the 2 steps of oxidative phosphorylation? | The formation and harnessing of the proton gradient |
| What heppens with Anaerobic metabolism? | its produces fewer ATPs and it depletes available glucoes and builds up lactic acid |
| Slow twitch fibers react slowly and produces most of their ATP by which metabolism? | Aerobic |
| What are the 5 types of Electron carriers? | Flavoproteins, Cytochromes, 3 coopers atoms, Ubiquinone and Iron sulphur proteins |
| The transfer of one carrier to another does not depend on the redox potential of each carrier. True or False? | False |
| What is cytochrome oxidase? | a large complex that adds 4 electrons to O2 to form 2 H20 molecules |
| What are the 2 components of the proton gradients? | The ph gradient and the proton motive force |
| What is the structure of ATP synthase? | F1 particle is the catalytic subunit and contains 3 catalytic sites for ATP synthase. |
| What does the binding change mechanism state? | movement of protons through ATP synthase alters the bindign affinity of the active site, each active site has different affinities for substrates and product |
| What are the roles of the proton motive force? | The H+ gradient drives transports ADP into and ATP out of themitochondrion, ADP controls the respiration rate |
| What are Peroxisomes? | membrane bound vesicles that conatain oxidative enzymes |
| Plants contain what special kind of peroxisome? | Glyoxysomes, which can convert fatty acids to glucose |
| Mutations in the mtDNA is supposedly a major cause in what? | aging |
| What were the earliest living organisms? | heterotrophs which survived off the environments nutrients |
| What is the difference betwen chemoautotrophs and photoautotrophs? | use energy from inorganic molecules and photo.. use radiant energy to make organic compounds |
| What does photosynthesis do? | converts energy from sunlight into chemical energy stored by carbohydrates |
| In eukaryotes where does photosynthesis take place? | chloroplast |
| What does the inner and outer membrane of the chloroplast do? | contains porins and light absorbing pigments, electtron carriers, ATP synthesizing enzymes |
| The flattened sacks in the inner membrane of the chloroplast is called what? | Thylakoids which are arrnged in stacks of grana |
| What is the difference between photosynthesis and respiraation? | oxidizes water to form oxygen and reduces oxygen to form water |
| What are Light dependent reactions? | when sunligh is absorbed and converted into ATP and NADPH |
| What are light-independant reactions? | when you use the energy stored in ATP and NADPH to produce carbohydrates |
| Absorption of Photons does what? | makes them go from ground state to excited state |
| What are photosynthetic pigments? | molecules that absorb light of particular wavelengths |
| What does the reaction center chlorophyll do? | transfers electrons to an electron acceptor |
| Antenna pigments are in charge of what? | the conversion of light as well as light absorption |
| What are photosystems? | large pigment proteins that raise electrons from H2o to NADP |
| What is the differnece between Photosystem 1 and 2? | boosts electrons to a level above NADP and the other boosts electrons from a below energy level of water to a midpoint |
| For every 8 photon absorbed what is produced? | 1 oxygen and 2 NADPH |
| Protons move int what through thr CF base of the synthase? | Lumen |
| The movement of electrons during the formation of oxygen is called what? | noncyclic photophosphorylation |
| What is the most abundant protein on Earth? | Rubisco |
| The C3 pathway is known as what? | The calvin cycle |
| What does the calvin cycle do? | converts CO2 into carbohydrates |
| GAP is converted into what? | Starch |
| What is phtorespiration? | The uptake of O2 and release of CO2 |
| The path of noncyclic electrons flow from PSII to PSI.True or False? | True |
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SierraHarris
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