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Test 2 Prep
Bio 2 Test 2 Study
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What are the general characteristics of protists? | eukaryotic; not fungi, plants or animals; most unicellular; colonial; few multicellular |
| What are the 3 methods by which protists move? | flagella, cillia, pseudpoda |
| How do protists obtain their nutrients? | photoautotrophs; heterotrophs (phagotrophs -engulf and osmotrophs-absorb surrounding); and mixotrophs |
| Asexual reproduction in protists: | binary fission, budding, schizogony (be able to define all of these terms too!) |
| Sexual reproduction in protists: | meiosis results in haploid cells from diploid cell followed by fertilization, major evolutionary innovation that arose in ancestral protists, frequent genetic recombination generations variation in population |
| Alteration of Generation in protists: | example - brown algae |
| Endosymbiosis in eukaryotic evolution: | red & green algae acquired photosynthetic cyanobacterium and evolved into plastids |
| example of secondary endosymbiosis: | chlorarachniophytes |
| Protist: Plasmodium (Chromoveolata) | causes malaria, complex life cycle with mosquito and human host, alteration of generation. Very lethal - 900,000 people per year. |
| Protist: Choanoflagellates (unikonta) | likely shares a common ancestor with animals, sponges have flagellated cells that exactly match the flagellated structure of these protists, homology in surface receptor with sponges |
| Protist: Trickonympha | termite gut guy |
| Protist: Trypandsoma gambiense | African sleeping sickness |
| binary fission | 1 to 2 |
| budding | 1 to many |
| schizogony | undergo multiple nuclear division, produces multiple nuclei, called schizont; undergoes cytokinesis to produce many small individual cells |
| sporangia | location of spore reproduction |
| sporophyte | 2n - adult fertilized zygote. undergoes meiosis to become haploid spores |
| gametophyte | 1n - produces 1n gametes via mitosis - which are then fertilized to zygote |
| Plastids | surrounded by 2 membranes - double membrane is common in chloroplast and mitochondria; caused by the initial absorption. Transport proteins are homologous w/ cyanobacteria |
| secondary endosymbiosis in protists | heterotrophic eukaryote that engulfed green algae - DNA sequences that share similarities w/ green algae. has flagella |
| Red Algae | Dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, stramenopiles |
| Green Algae | Euglina, chloranacmiophytes |
| Once a single kingdom... | there are now 5 kingdoms/super groups. Don't know branch/common ancestors. Currently all evolving spontaneously |
| 5 supergroups | Excavata, chromalveolata, Rhizaria, Archae plastida, Unikonta |
| Archae plastida | common ancestors with land plants |
| Unikonta | common ancestors with fungi & animals |
| Charophytes | land plants |
| nucleariide | fungi |
| choanoflagellates | animals |
| dinoflagellates | spin as they move, have 2 unequal flagella, bioluminescent (symbiotic relationship with bacteria), toxic (20 species - harms vertebrates, can "bloom", causes red tides) |
| 500 million years ago | small plants developed |
| 385 million years ago | plants that could fight developed |
| Charophytes | all land plants have fresh water agal ancestor |
| Similarities between plants and algae/other protists | multicellular, eukaryotic, photosynthetic autotrophs, cell walls w/ cellulose (brown algae and dinoflagellates), chloroplast that have chlorophyll alpha and beta (euglena and dinoflagellates) |
| Protists (ch 28) | the kingdom Protista is gone and replaced with various kingdoms. Most biologists still use the term protist, but only as a convenient way to refer to eukaryotes that are not plants, animals, or fungi. |
| Algae (ch 28) | engulfed photosynthetic cyanobacterium that evolved into plastids, this then gave rise to two lineages of photosynthetic protists = algae |
| endosymbiosis (ch 28) | a relationship between two species in which one organism lives inside the cell or cells of another organism (the host). data indicates that mitochondria and plastids are derived from prokaryotes that were engulfed by the ancestral eukaryotic cells. |
| secondary endosymbiosis (ch 28) | meaning they wereingested in the food vacuoles of heterotrophiceukaryotes and became endosymbionts themselves. |
| example of secondary endosymbiosis (ch 28) | protists known as chlorarachniophytes likely evolved when a heterotrophic eukaryote engulfed a green alga. Evidence for this process can be found within the engulfed cell, which contains a tiny vestigial nucleus, called a nucleomorph |
| Excavata (ch 28) | (the excavates), a clade that was originally proposed based on morphological studies of the cytoskeleton. some w/ “excavated” feeding groove on one side of the cell body.include the diplomonads, parabasalids, and euglenozoans. Each group is monophyletic |
| euglenozoans (ch 28) | includes predatory heterotrophs, photosynthetic autotrophs,mixotrophs, and parasites. the presence of a rod with either a spiral or a crystalline structure inside each flagella. best studied groups are the kinetoplastids and the euglenids. |
| kinetoplastids (ch 28) | single, large mitochondrion containing an organized mass of DNA called kinetoplast. include species that feed on prokaryotes in freshwater, marine, and moist terrestrial ecosystems, as well as species who parasitize animals, plants, and other protists. |
| euglenid (ch 28) | has a pocket at one end of the cell from which one or two flagella emerge. many are mixotrophs, and many others engulf prey by phagocytosis. |
| SAR clade (ch 28) | based on whole-genome DNA sequence analyses. three major clades of protists—the stramenopiles, alveolates, and rhizarians— form a monophyletic supergroup. extremely diverse collection of protists. no formal name, but first letter of 3 clades: SAR |
| stramenopiles (ch 28) | includes some of the most important photosynthetic organisms. name refers to characteristic flagellum w/ numerous fine, hairlike projections. In most stramenopiles, this “hairy” flagellum is paired with a shorter “smooth” (nonhairy) flagellum |
| diatoms (ch 28) | unicellular algae w/ a unique glass-like wall made of silicon dioxide embedded in an organic matrix. The wall consists of two parts that overlap and provide effective protection from crushing jaws of predators: withstand 1.4 million kg/m^2 of pressure |
| golden algae (ch 28) | typically biflagellated, with both flagella attached near one end of the cell. all golden algae are photosynthetic, some species are mixotrophic. most unicellular |
| brown algae (ch 28) | most are multicellular and marine. |
| holdfast - algae (ch 28) | anchors the algae |
| stipe - algae (ch 28) | stemlike structure that supports the algae blades. Stips can be as much as 60m from the seafloor to help the blades be near the water surface |
| blades - algae (ch 28) | leaflike structure of algae |
| alternation of generations (ch 28) | alteration of multicellular haploid and diploid forms (see figure 28.13) |
| heteromorphic (ch 28) | meaning that the sporophytes and gametophytes are structurally different |
| isomorphic (ch 28) | in which the sporophytes and gametophytes look similar to each other, although they differ in chromosome number |
| alveolates (ch 28) | have membrane-enclosed sacs (alveoli) just under the plasma membrane. Alveolates are abundantin many habitats and include a wide range of photosynthetic and heterotrophic protists. the dinoflagellates, the apicomplexans, and the ciliateS. |
| apicomplexans (ch 28) | |
| dinoflagellates (ch 28) | |
| ciliates (ch 28) | |
| conjugation (ch 28) | a sexual process in which two individuals exchange haploid micronuclei but do not reproduce |
| rhizarians (ch 28) | |
| amoebas (ch 28) | |
| pseudopodia (ch 28) | |
| radiolarians (ch 28) | |
| foraminiferans - (forams)(ch 28) | |
| tests - forams (ch 28) | |
| cercozoans (ch 28) | |
| archaeplastida (ch 28) | |
| Red algae (ch 28) | |
| green algae (ch 28) | |
| amoebozoan (ch 28) | |
| opisthokonts (ch 28) | |
| producers (ch 28) | organisms that use energy from light (or inorganic chemicals) to convert carbon dioxide to organic compounds. Producers form the base of ecological food webs. In aquatic communities, the main producers are photosynthetic protists and prokaryotes |
| heterotrophs (ch 28) | absorbing organic molecules or ingesting larger food particles |
| mixotrophs (ch 28) | combine photosynthesis and heterotrophic nutrition |
| mitochondria (ch 28) | ancestral eukaryotes that engulfed a bacterium |
| plastid (ch 28) | arrived from ancestral eukaryotes engulfing a photosynthetic cyanobacterium, which evolved into plastids |
| parabasalids (ch 28) | also have reduced mitochondria; called hydrogenosomes, these organelles generate some energy anaerobically, releasing hydrogen gas as a by-product. |
| diplomonads (ch 28) | have reduced mitochondria called mitosomes. organelles lack functional electron transport chains and cannot use oxygen to help extract energy from carbohydrates and other organic molecules. Instead, get the energy from anaerobic biochemical pathways. |
| diplomonads example (ch 28) | Many diplomonads are parasites, including the infamous Giardia intestinalis (see Figure 28.2), which inhabits the intestines of mammals. |
| parabasalids example (ch 28) | Trichomonas vaginalis, sexually transmitted parasite that infects some 5 million people each year. travels along the mucus-coated lining of the human reproductive and urinary tracts by moving its flagella and by undulating part of its plasma membrane |
| kinetoplastid example (ch 28) | Trypanosoma infect humans and cause sleeping sickness, a neurological disease that is invariably fatal if not treated. The infection occurs via the bite of a vector (carrier) organism, the African tsetse fly |
| stramenopiles example (ch 28) | diatoms, golden and brown algae |
| True or False. angiosperms that have a ovary that encloses the ovule | True |
| Where in angiosperms does pollen germination take place? | stigma |
| Angiosperm use of double fertilization and endosperm | two sperm nuclei - both fertilize, one goes to egg, the other goes to the endosperm (a 3n, used for zygote nutrition) |
| True or False. Flowers are modified leaves | true |
| modified leaves that encapsulate the seed, develops into fruit | carpel |
| Pollen transfer aided in angiosperms | by animals, sometimes wind. NO FLAGELLATED SPERMS |
| Fruit | =Ovary. Ovary develops into fruit |
| vascular plant dermal tissue | epidermal cells, outside of plant, does not normally contain chloroplast, serve as protection/water loss prevention/ gas exchange |
| when does pollination begin in angiosperms? | when pollen is placed on the stigma the pollen tube begins to develop |
| What is one shortcoming of wind dispersal in angiosperms? | short dispersal distance limits genetic variation |
| What method is used 65% of the time by angiosperms to disperse seeds? | animals - amplifies potential mating pool,coevolution between animal/plant, mostly bees |
| what color are bird pollinated plants mostly and why? | red - birds can see red better than insects |
| examples of wind pollinated angiosperms with adaptations to increase productivity of wind dispersal | grasses, oaks, cottonwoods |
| Self pollinating plants | occurs frequently, anther surrounds stigma, pollen doesnt have to travel far and they dont rely on pollinators. They dont have to spend energy on flowers/nectar |
| negatives of self-pollination | not acquiring new genes, if parent plant isnt well adapted, offspring will not survive. |
| guard cells - vascular plants | flank stomata, have chloroplast, seal stomata when needed |
| Trichromes - vascular plants | hairlike projectsions on stem, collects water/reduce evaporation, regulate microlimate of stem (cooling), disrupt wind flow (prevents water loss), defensive - toxic substances |
| root hairs - vascular plants | extensions of epidermal cells, increase surface area increases absorption ability |
| ground tissues - vascular plants | have chloroplast for photosynthesis, store food, are responsible for regeneration, support and protection. |
| Parenchyma - ground tissue - vascular plants | most common, food/water storage, secrete nectar, resin (woody plants), latex (mostly storage), proteins, metabolic waste. Most of the cells found in fruit, can live for over 100 years |
| Collenchyma - ground tissue - vascular plants | structural cell, supports plant organs, can bend without breaking, good for windy conditions (ex celery strings) |
| Schlerenchyma - ground tissue - vascular plants | structural proteins, produce lignin, help produce regidity, produce gritty texture (ex pears) |
| Xylem - vascular tissue | main water conduction tissue, path normally starts at roots, up plant, out to leaves and exit via stomata (transpiration). works through capillary action, doesnt require pumping, uses waters cohesive/adhesive properties. |
| transpiration | diffusion of water in a plant |
| evapotransiprtion | loss of water from a plant through evaporation |
| True or False. Minerals and other inorganic ions can be absorbed by the roots and travel through the xylem | True |
| Phloem - vascular tissue | nutrient transport (food/organic matter) - down flows food through the phloem, down phloem, down...carries product of photosynthesis from leaves to root. also carries hormones |
| Roots- vascular tissue | absorption of water and minerals, used for anchorage. Modified to store carbohydrates or water |
| Potatoes, Carrots, beets and turnips are all examples of: | roots as modified carbohydrate storage |
| cactus use roots to: | store water |
| Stems - vascular tissue | develop from apical meristem |
| node (on stem) - vascular tissue | leaf attachment site |
| internode (on stem) - vascular tissue | space between two nodes |
| blade (on stem) - vascular tissue | flatten part of a leaf |
| petiole (on stem) - vascular tissue | stoke (stem like part) of leaf |
| sessile (on stem) - vascular tissue | leaf that does not have petiole |
| axillary bud (on stem) - vascular tissue | found between petiole and stem, develops into branches or flowers, essentially an apical meristem |
| what is the apical meristem the site of? | location of active mitosis, responsible for most height and length |
| stem modification: bulb - vascular tissue | onions, lillies, tulips. large bud with leaves |
| stem modification: rhizome - vascular tissue | horizontal stems that grow underground, at nodes have scale like leaf protecting stem. Adaptation to harsher terrestrial environment. Tip photosynthetic leaves |
| stem modification: runner | horizontal stem above ground, very long internodes (ex. strawberry plant) |
| Angiosperms evolved: | 140 mya (new evidence of 240 mya from Switzerland) |
| examples of asexual reproduction in angiosperms | vegetative reproduction and apomixis |
| apomixis | Asexually produce embryo in seeds, adv: seed dispersal |
| Promotion of outcrossing | dioecious (separate male/female) Monoicous plants are those species that bear both sperm and eggs on the same gametophyte |
| prevention of self pollination by having stamens and pistils mature at different times | dichogamous |
| vegetative reproduction - angiosperms | new plants cloned from parts of adults; runners, rhizomes, suckers, adventitious plantlets |
| what are the three plant tissue types? | dermal, ground and vascular |
| megaspore | produced by megasporangia - enclosed in an ovule surrounded by diploid sporophyte tissue - female gametophyte |
| microspore | produced by microsporangia - male gametophyte |
| Evolutionary advantages of seeds over spores | embryo protected by ovule, dormant phase, food supply for embryo, dispersal and drought/temperature |
| gymnosperms | ovule not completely enclosed, all lack flowers and fruit |
| gymnosperm species | coniferophyta, cycadophyta, gnetophyta, ginkgophyta |
| synapomorphies of angiosperms and gymnosperms | ovary that encloses the ovules, stigma where pollen germination takes place, double fertilization and endosperm, stamens with pollen |
| True or False the Kingdom Protista is polyphyletic? | true |
| the fossil record dates eukaryotes how many years ago? a)12,000 b)4 MYA c) 1.5 BYA d) 6 MYA | C) 1.5 BYA |
| What did mitochondria evolve from? a) plants b) engulfed aerobic bacteria c) engulfed photosynthetic bacteria d) a virus | b) engulfed aerobic bacteria |
| what did chloroplasts evolve from? a) plants b) engulfed aerobic bacteria c) engulfed photosynthetic bacteria d) a virus | c) engulfed photosynthetic bacteria |
| Evolution of endoplasmic reticulum and nuclear envelope arose by: | The infolding theory: The theory goes something like this: Basically the plasma membrane of a prokaryotic cell folded into itself to create the various organelles that are present in eukaryotic cells (nuclear envelope), ER, etc. |
| 2 characteristics of protists: | 1. not animal, not fungi or batirera 2. eurkaryotic cells |
| Cellular arrangement of protists | unicellular, multicellular and colonial |
| 3 locomotions for protists | cilia, flagella, pseudopodia |
| Nutrient obtainment in protists: | photoautotrophs, heterotrophs (osmotrophs and phagotrophs), mixotrophs |
| three types of asexual reproduction in protists | budding, bianary fission, schizognony |
| schizogony | form of asexual reproduction characteristic of some protozoa, including sporozoa, daughter cells produced by multiple fission of the nucleus of the parasite (schizont) before segmentation of cytoplasm to form separate masses around each smaller nucleus. |
| _________________results in haploid cells from diploid cells and is then followed by ______________ (the joining of two gametes) | meiosis; fertilization |
| starting at sporophyte, complete the alternation of generations | sporophyte[2n]-(meiosis)->sporangia[1n]-->spores[1n]-->gametophyte[1n]-(mitosis)->gametes[1n]-->(fertilization/fusion) zygote [2n]--> embryo[2n] --> |
| True or False. DNA of red & green algae is different from that found in cynobacteria | False. |
| plastids are surrounded by 2 membranes - what other structures (organelles) have double membranes? _____________ and __________. This was caused by the inital attempted absorption | chloroplast & mitochondria |
| what are the 5 supergroups of protists? | Excavata, Chromalveolata, Archaeplastidia, Rhizaria, Unikonta |
| What causes malaria, what is the carrier and does it follow alteration of generations? | Plasmodium (Chromalveolata), carried by mosquitoes and follows Alt. of gen. |
| what protist likely shares common ancestor with animals and has similar flagellated structures to sponges? [10/7/2014 10:11:31 PM] Kaylee Jo Thorson: it also shares homology with a surface receptor of sponges as well | unikonta |
| T or F. gymnosperm means naked seed; all lack flowers and fruit with a non completely enclosed ovule | true |
| which two gymnosperms have flagellated sperm? | cycadophyta and ginkgophyta |
| why are female cones found higher than male cones? | it says to prevent self-fertilization. it takes from 15months-3years for the pollen tube to reach the ovule and produce a mature embryo |
| angiosperms - flowers exist to do what? | to attract pollenators |
Created by:
SChavez
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