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Anatomy Exam 1
Vanderbilt University N210A
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Anatomy | study of structure of body parts and relationship to each other |
| Physiology | study of function of body parts individually and together as systems |
| What are the 3 subsection of Gross anatomy? | Regional Systemic Surface |
| What are the 2 subsections of Microscopic anatomy? | Cytology Histology |
| What is cytology? | cellular anatomy |
| What is histology? | how cells are organized into tissues |
| Why study A and P together? | structure and function are complementary |
| What are the levels of organization from simplest to most complex? | chemical subcellular cellular tissue organ organ system organismal |
| What are the 8 necessary functions for maintaining life? | maintain boundaries (internal/external) movement responsiveness digestion Metabolism Excretion Reproduction*** Growth |
| What are some things we need to survive? | nutrients oxygen water normal body temperature atmospheric pressure |
| What is homeostasis? | can maintain a constant internal environment even when internal/external changes happen |
| WHat is a dynamic state of equilibrium? | The way our bodies maintain a homeostatic internal environment |
| What is the name of the parameter which our bodies are regulating? | the variable is the input being regulated |
| What are the 3 interdependent parts of a HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL MECHANISM? | Receptor-detects amount of variable and tells CC Control center-receives info from receptor and sets normal ranges Effector- responds to return the variable to a homeostatic level |
| Efferent v. afferent pathway | In homeostatic control mechanisms, receptor sends info along AFFERENT pathway to control center control center sends info via EFFERENT pathway to effector |
| Most homeostatic control mechanisms are (+/-) feedback loops | NEGATIVE - - - - - - |
| What is a negative feedback loop? Example? | causes the variable (input) to change in OPPOSITE direction Goal: to limit magnitude of the change Maintain normal body temp (get too hot /\, body cools down with sweat \/) |
| what are positive feedback loops? Example? | activate self perpetuating events most NOT involved in homeostasis Uterine contractions during childbirth regulation of blood clotting (builds even higher) |
| What causes most disease? | homeostatic imbalance |
| What is the correct ANATOMICAL POSITION? | body erect arms at sides palms forward feet together |
| Superior/Inferior | towards head away from head |
| Anterior/ Posterior | front of body back of body |
| Ventral/ Dorsal | front of body Back of body |
| Medial/ lateral/ intermediate | to middle to sides between middle and sides |
| Proximal/ distal | closer to midline farther from midline |
| superficial/ deep | on surface below surface |
| What regions are included in the Axial? | head, neck, trunk |
| What body parts are included in the appendicular region? | appendages (arms, legs, etc) |
| What is the sagittal plane? | cuts from anterior to posterior (front to back) of body |
| What is the midsaggital or medial plane? | cuts from anterior to posterior (front to back) but divides the body in half evenly |
| What is the frontal (coronal) plane? | cuts body from left to right across into the anterior and posterior halves |
| What is the transverse plane? | cuts the upper body from the lower body |
| What is the oblique plane? | cuts body at a diagonal in some way |
| What percent of anatomical structures match textbook descriptions? | 90% wish some slight variation (nerves/blood vessels in slightly off places) |
| What is the function of the dorsal cavity? | houses/protects nervous system |
| What are the two subdivisions of the dorsal cavity? | cranial and vertebral cavity |
| What is the function of the cranial cavity? | within the skull encases the brain |
| What is the function of the vertebral cavity? | within the vertebral column and encases spinal cord |
| What is the function of the ventral cavity? | houses the internal organs, has two subdivisions |
| What are the subdivisions of the ventral cavity? | Thoracic Abdominopelvic |
| What is the thoracic cavity? Subdivisions? | subsection of ventral cavity, houses the heart and lungs Pleural cavities and mediastinum |
| What is the abdominopelvic cavity? | subsection of ventral cavity, houses the digestive system, urinary system, and bladdar |
| What is the pleural cavity? | subdivision of thoracic cavity, houses lungs |
| What is the mediastinum? | subdivision of thoracic cavity, houses the pericardial cavity and sternum areas |
| What separates the abdominopelvic and thoracic cavities? | diaphragm |
| What are the two subsections of the abdominopelvic cavity? | abdominal cavity pelvic cavity |
| What does the abdominal cavity house? | digestive system |
| What does the pelvic cavity house? | reproductive system, urinary bladder, and rectum |
| What do serous membranes do? | cover inner walls of the body cavities and outer surface of organs |
| What does parietal serosa do? | lines internal body walls |
| What does visceral serosa do? | covers internal organs |
| What does serous fluid do? | separates serosae and lubricates to reduce friction |
| What is the parietal pericardium? visceral pericardium? | Visceral pericardium is a serous membrane attached around heart Parietal pericardium is around the visceral pericardium separated by serous fluid |
| Where is the epigastric, umbilical, hypogastric, hypochondriac, lumbar, and inguinal abdominopelvic regions? | E-top middle U- middle middle (around bellybutton) H.gastric-lower middle (pubic region) H.chondriac- top left and right Lumbar- middle left and right Inguinal- bottom left and right |
| What are the 4 principle elements found in the body? | C, O, N, H |
| What is the atomic number? | Equal to number of protons |
| What is the mass number? | equal to mass of protons and neutrons |
| Atomic weight | average of mass numbers of all isotopes |
| What is an isotope? | same number of protons, different neutrons |
| What is a radioisotope? | unstable isotopes, undergo spontaneous decay called radioactivity |
| What is a molecule? A compound? Mixture? | M-two or more atoms held together by chemical bond C- two or more DIFFERENT atoms held together by chemical bond M- not chemically bonded |
| What is a solution? | a homogeneous mixture with a Solute and a solvent |
| What is a solute? Solvent? | solvent greatest amount solute lesser amount |
| What is molarity? | moles/liter |
| What is a mole? | sum of atomic weights in grams |
| What are the 3 types of chemical bonds? | Ionic Covalent Hydrogen |
| Ionic bonds form what instead of individual molecules? | crystals (think salt) |
| What is an ionic bond? | transfer one or more electrons |
| What is a covalent bond? | sharing 2+ electrons produces molecules |
| What is a nonpolar molecule? | electrons are shared equally between atoms |
| What is a polar molecule? | unequal sharing in a covalent bond |
| What is a hydrogen bond? | interaction between electronegative and electropositive molecular sides |
| What is responsible for the surface tension of water? | hydrogen bonds |
| What is a synthesis reaction? | smaller particles are combined |
| WHat is a decomposition reaction? | larger molecules have bonds broken |
| What is an exchange reaction? | bonds in molecule are made and broken (rearrangement) |
| WHat is an oxidation reduction reaction? | reactants lose electrons=oxidized reactants gain electrons=reduced |
| What is an exergonic reaction? | release E |
| What is an endergonic reaction? | require E input |
| What defines organic compounds? | Carbon! Covalent bonds LARGE |
| What defines inorganic compounds? | NO carbon! Water, salts, acids/bases |
| What is a salt? | ionic compound that have Cations other than H+ (acids) and anions other than OH- (bases) Electrolytes!!! |
| How do you find pH? | Negative log10 of the molar concentration of H+ |
| Why do acidic solutions have a lower pH? | higher H+ concentration |
| What is a buffer? | chemical systems that resist pH swings |
| What are the 4 major classes of BIOLOGICAL organic compounds? | carbohydrates lipids proteins nucleic acids |
| What elements are found in Carbohydrates? Major function? | C, H, O Provide cellular fuel for E production |
| What is a disaccharide? | 2 monosaccharides linked by a covalent bond |
| What is a polysaccharide? | polymers of many hundreds or thousands of monosaccharides? |
| What is a lipid made up of? How does it differ from carbohydrates? | C, H, O has LESS O than carbohydrates |
| Why are lipids NOT water soluble? | nonpolar molecules |
| What is a triglyceride? | 3 fatty acids covalently bonded to glycerol molecule? |
| what is a phospolipid? What do these make up? | Diglyceride with 2 fatty acids and a polar phosphate head, nonpolar tail Make up cell membranes (hydrophobic heads) |
| What is a steroid? | a type of lipid flat molecule w/ 4 interlocking hydrocarbon rings modified w/ substituents in several positions |
| What is a protein made up of? | polymers of amino acids |
| How many amino acids? What do all contain? How are they linked together? | 20 all contain amine group and carboxylic acid group, chemically distinct side chain linked by peptide bonds |
| What are the 4 levels of protein structure? what do they look like? | Primary-AA chain Secondary- Alpha helices or beta pleated sheets Tertiary-3d folded secondary structures Quaternary-multiple protein chains form complete functional unit |
| What are proteins grouped by? What are the 2 classes? | grouped by shape, fibrous proteins globular proteins |
| What is denaturation? | process by which proteins lose native structure |
| WHat are most enzymes made of? | globular proteins that act as biological catalysts |
| What are the 2 subunits of most enzymes? | apoenzyme (protein) cofactor (ion) |
| What are the elements found in Nucleic acids? | C O H N P |
| What is the structural unit of a nucleic acid? | nucleotide N containing base, pentose sugar, and a phosphate group |
| WHat are the 5 nucleotide bases? | Adenine Guanine Cytosine Thymine Uracil |
| What are the 2 main classes of Nucleic acids? | DNA RNA |
| What is the sugar in DNA? | Deoxyribose |
| What is RNA? | single stranded nucleic acid molecules in the NUCLEUS and CYTOPLASM |
| What is unique about RNA nucleotides? | Uses uracil instead of thymine |
| What are the 3 forms of RNA? | mRNA tRNA rRNA |
| THis type of RNA is transcribed from DNA sequence of genes and provides correct sequence of AA for protein translation | mRNA |
| What is ATP? | energy currency of cells |
| What are the central concepts of cell theory? | cell is basic structural/functional unit organismal activity depends on individual/collective activity of cells biochemical activity dictated by subcellular structure continuity of life has cellular basis |
| What are the 3 main parts of cells? | plasma membrane nucleus cytoplasm |
| The lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane consists of these 3: | Phospholipids cholesterol glycolipids rafts |
| What is a glycolipid? | phospholipid with carbohydrate covalently bound to head region |
| What is a raft? | part of plasma membrane makes up 20% outer membrane surface |
| What are the functions of plasma membrane proteins? | transport hormone receptors attachment point for other proteins Enxymatic activity intercellular adhesion cell-cell recognition |
| What is a tight junction? | part of plasma membrane forms seal between adjacent cells to prevent paracellular transport |
| WHat are desmosomes? | part of plasma membrane that mechanically anchor cells to each other |
| What are gap junctions? | form pore between cells to selectively pass molecules or ions |
| What is active transport? | metabolic E is used for transport |
| WHat is passive transport? | no E input from cell |
| What are the 3 types of passive transport? | simple diffusion facilitated diffusion Osmosis |
| What is osmosis? | movement of water molecules across a semipermeable membrane |
| What is osmolarity? Tonicity? | O-total concentration of solute particles in solution T-how a solution affects cell volume |
| What's the difference, Isotonic, hypotonic, hypertonic? | I-solute same in and out of cells Hypo- solute in cell higher than out Hyper-solute in cell less than out |
| What are the two types of active transport? | symport system- 2 solutes moved in same direction antiport system- 2 solutes moved in opposite directions |
| What is vesicular transport? What are the 4 types? | requires E transport large particles across plasma membrane Exocytosis Endocytosis Transcytosis Vesicular trafficking |
| What is exocytosis? | moves substances out of the cell |
| What is endocytosis? | moves large particles into cell |
| What is transcytosis | moves substances into, through, then out of cell |
| What is vesicular trafficking? | moves substance from one part of cell to another |
| What is membrane potential? | voltage across a membrane |
| What is resting membrane potential | membrane voltage when cell is not being stimulated -50 to -100 mV REsults from Sodium/potassium gradients |
| Where does membrane potential exist? | surface of the plasma membrane sum of ALL +/- charges is 0 |
| What are CAMs? | Cell adhesion molecules integral membrane glycoproteins |
| What are the functions of membrane receptors? | contact signaling electrical signaling chemical signaling |
| Explain what a ligand is/does | A chemical signal which binds to a receptor to trigger a structural change which changes the receptor's function Allows |
| What is the cytoplasm? | all the intracellular material between the plasma membrane and the nucleus Includes, cytosol, cytoplasmic organelles, and inclusions |
| What is cytosol>? | part of the cytoplasm, a complex water-based mix with dissolved proteins, salts, sugars etc |
| What ar the cytoplasmic organelles? | complex subcellular structures that perform specific intracellular functions |
| Which cytoplasmic organelles are membranous? | endoplasmic reticulum mitochondria golgi apparatus lysosomes |
| Which cytoplasmic organelles are NON membranous? | cytoskeleton, centrioles, ribosomes |
| What are inclusions? | chemical substances which are found in the cytoplasm other than organelles and cytosol |
| What are mitochondria? What type of cell has more mitochondria? Structure? | curved double membrane organelle with shelf like cristae, provide most of the cells ATP via AEROBIC respiration have own DNA and RNA and can reproduce selves Cells that work more have more of these |
| Which organelle has it's own DNA and RNA and can reproduce itself? | mitochondria |
| What are ribosomes? Function? Two types? | nonmembranous organelle containing protein and rRNA, Protein synthesis free ribosomes-not attached membrane bound ribosomes-bound to RER |
| What do free ribosomes do? What do Membrane bound ribosomes do? | Free-synthesize soluble proteins Membrane-synthesize integral membrane and secreted proteins |
| What is the endoplasmic reticulum? Function? Two types? | a membrane bound organelle with lots of cisternae, attached to nuclear membrane RER and SER |
| What distinguishes the Rough ER? | surface has ribosomes, manufactures secreted proteins, integral membrane protins and phospholipids for cell membranes |
| What does the Smooth ER do: In liver? Testes/ovaries? intestinal cells? skeletal/cardiac muscle? | Lots of different things: liver-breakdown glycogen testes-synthesize steroids intestine- control fats skeletal-store/release calcium ions |
| What is the golgi apparatus? | a membrane bound organelle which modifies, concentrates, and packages proteins for movement through/out of the cell |
| What are lysosomes? | membranous organelles which contain acidic digestive enzymes to digest invaders, degrade nonworking cellular organelles, breakdown glycogen, breakdown bone to release calcium |
| What makes up the endomembrane system? what does it do? | includes nuclear envelope, ER, lysosomes, vacuoles, transport vesicles, Golgi, and plasma membrane produce, store, and export bio. molecules degrade harmful substances |
| What is the cytoskeleton? | a nonmembranous organelle, functions as the "protein" skeleton of a cell to provide structural supports |
| WHat are teh 3 filaments found in the cytoskeleton? How are they different? | Microfilaments- thin helical strands of actin Intermediate filaments- tough woven ropes insoluble composed of tetramens Microtubules- hollow tubes of spherical protein subunits tubulin |
| What are centrioles? What do they do? | small nonmembranous barrel shaped organelles in the centrosome, 9 triplets of microtubules organizes the mitotic spindle during mitosis, form bases of cilia and flagella |
| What are cilia? Function? | nonmembranous organelles made of centrioles which help move things across the cell surface in 1 direction, consist of 9 microtuble doublets circling one pair of microtubles |
| What are the components of the nucleus? | nuclear envelope, nucleoli, chromatin, protein compartments |
| What does the nucleus contain? | genetic library (DNA) |
| What is the function of the nucleus? | dictates kind/amount of proteins to be made |
| What organelle is the largest? | nucleus |
| What is the nucleular envelope? Pore complexes? | selectively permeable double membrane with pore complexes which regulate the transport of LARGE molecules in/out of nucleus |
| WHat is nucleoplasm? | contained in nucleus, a jellylike substance |
| What is special about the nuclear outer membrane? | continuous with RER and is studded with ribosomes |
| What is the nucleoli? | spherical bodies within the nucleus which produce ribosomes |
| What is chromatin? | found in the nucleus, threads of DNA complexed with histone proteins |
| What are the fundamental structural units of chromatin? | nucleosomes |
| When the nucleus starts to divide, what happens to the chromatin? | condenses into barlike bodies called chromosomes |
| What are the 2 phases of the cell cycle? | Interphase and mitotic phase |
| What are the stages of interphase? | Growth1 Synthesis Growth2 |
| What are the stages of the mitotic phases? | Mitosis which consists of Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telephase and Cytokinesis where the parent cell cleaves into 2 daughter cells |
| What is cytokinesis? | part of the mitotic phase where parent cell divides into 2 daughter cells |
| How does DNA replication happen? | DNA unwinds from nucleosomes Helicase untwists helix form replication bubbles Replisome uses RNA primers to begin DNA synthesis DNA polymerase III adds nucleotides to template forming daughter strand DNA polymerase I replaces RNA w nucleotides |
| How does DNA polymerase work? What does "semiconservative replication imply? | only in one direction so leading strand is continuously synthesized but LAGGING strand is discontinuously synthesized and spliced together by DNA ligase |
| What happens in mitosis? Cytokinesis? | M-nuclear division C-cytoplasm divides (cleavage furrow formed by contractile ring in anaphase, pinches apart cytoplasm after mitosis) |
| What happens in EARLY PROPHASE? | chromatin->chromosomes made of 2 identical chromatids held together by centromere nucleolus disappeares centrioles start separating and forming mitotic spindle |
| What happens in LATE PROPHASE? | nuclear envelope breaks up Kinetochore microtubules from spindle poles attach to chromosome centromere other polar microtubules meet each other in middle of cells and push centrioles to opposite sides of cell |
| WHat happens in Metaphase? | chromosomes line up on metaphase plate separase cuts kinetochore protein to allow chromatids to separate in next phase |
| What happens in anaphase? | chromatids pulled toward spindle poles polar microtubules lengthen causing spindle poles to separate/elongate the cell |
| What happens in telophase? | new nuclear envelope and nucleolus start forming microtubule spindles disappear contractile ring cleaves the cell into 2 daughter cells |
| What can inhibit cell division? Specific gene? | repressor genes p53 gene produces growth inhibiting factors (1/2 cancer have abnormal p53 gene) |
| What is DNA for? | master blueprint for PROTEIN SYNTHESIS |
| What are genes? | linear segments of DNA which carry instructions for the polypeptide chain |
| What form the genetic library? | triplets of nucleotide bases (codons) Each of which is a specific for a single amino acid |
| What is Messenger RNA? | carries genetic info from DNA in nucleus to ribosomes in cytoplasm |
| What is transfer rna? | bound to amino acids base, pair with the codons of mRNA at ribosome to begin protein synthesis |
| What is ribosomal rna? | structural component of ribosomes |
| What is transcription? | transfer of info from sense strand of DNA to mRNA uses RNA polymerase |
| What is translation? | mRNA nucleotids sequence determines Amino Acid sequence of new protein |
| What are polyribosomes? | several ribosomes transcribing the same mRNA molecule at same time |
| WHat is a tissue? 4 types? | a group of cells that are similar in structure and function Epithelial Connective Muscle Nerve |
| What defines epithelial tissue? | form continuous sheets held together by tight junctions and desmosomes apical (exposed to outside) and basal (faces inside)surfaces Supported by connective tissue avascular but innervated (no blood supply but have nerve fibers) highly regenerative |
| How can epithelial tissues be classified? | cell organization (simple/stratified) cell shapes (squamous, cuboidal, columnar) |
| What are simple squamous cells? WHere are they found? | single layer of flat cells line heart/blood vessels, lungs, and serosae |
| What are simple cuboidal cells? Where are they found? | single layer of cube-like cells with large central nuclei kidney tubules, secretory glands, ovarian surface |
| What are simple columnar cells? Where are they found? | single layer of tall cells with oval nuclei nonciliated- digestive tract and gall bladder ciliated- lungs, uterine tubes, uterus |
| What are pseudostratified columnar epithelial cells? WHere are they found? | single layer of cells with different heights, nuclei at different heights, secrete mucus present in sperm carrying male ducts and trachea |
| What are stratified squamous cells? Where are they found? | thick tissue composed of several layers of flattened cells protect underlying areas found in epidermis, esophagus, mouth, and vagina |
| What is transitional epithelium? | several cell layers, basal cuboidal cells and dome shaped surface cells, stretches to permit distention of bladder |
| What are the 3 primary types of epithelial membanes? | cutaneous-skin mucous-lines body cavities open to exterior serous-moist membranes in closed body cavities |
| What is glandular epithelium? | two types, endocrine and exocrine (based on where products are released) glands make and secrete a fluid can be uni or multicellular |
| What are endocrine glands? | ductless glands that produce hormones |
| What are exocrine glands? | more numerous in body, secrete products onto body surfaces/body cavities mucous, sweat, oil, salivary glands |
| How are exocrine glands classified? | simple duct or compound duct tubular structure or alveolar structure |
| In what 2 ways can glands secrete? | merocrine secretion -exocytosis Holocrine secretion- glands are ruptured |
| What distinguishes connective tissue? | most abundant and widely distributed tissue type has nonliving extracellular matrix |
| What are the 4 primary categories of connective tissue? | connective tissue proper cartilage bone blood |
| What are the functions of connective tissue? | binding/support protection insulation transportation |
| What is ground substance? | a part of connective tissue, unstructured gel-like protein that fills space between cells has lots of water functions as molecular sieve through which nutrients diffuse |
| What are the 3 types of protein fibers in connective tissue? | collagen elastic reticular |
| WHat distinguishes collagen? | tough INelastic fibers provide high tensile strenght |
| What distinguishes elastic fibers? | long, thing, spring like fibers |
| What distinguishes reticular fibers? | short branched fibers that form networks to support soft tissues |
| What type of fiber is primarily found in tendons/ligaments? | collagen |
| Where do connective tissue cells come from? | mesenchyme which differentiate into fibroblasts (connective tissue proper) chondroblasts (cartilage) osteoblasts (bone) and hematopoietic stem cells (blood) |
| What is areolar connective tissue? | a loose connective tissue containing all three fiber types primarily made of fibroblasts functions to wrap and cushion organs |
| What is adipose connective tissue? | loose connective tissue containing closely packed adipocytes act as fuel stores, insulate agains heat loss, supports and protects found under skin, around kidneys, and breasts |
| What makes up most of the volume in intracellular space in adipocytes? | triglycerides |
| What is reticular connective tissue? | loose connective tissue made primarily of reticular fibers, fiber network that supports immune cells found in lymph nodes, bone marrow, and spleen |
| What is dense regular connective tissue? | has // collagen fibers with a few elastic fibers primarily made of fibroblasts attaches muscles to bone or other muscles and bone to bone (ligaments) provides great strength in direction// to fibers |
| What is dense irregular connective tissue? | irregularly arranged collagen fibers w/ some elastic fibers mostly fibroblasts strong in many directions found in dermis |
| What is hyaline cartilage? | a connective tissue made of firm matrix with few collagen fibers made of chondrocytes in lacunae supports, reinforces, cushions, resists compression found embryonic skeleton, end of long bones, nose, trachea, and larynx |
| What is elastic cartilage? | an elastic connective tissue with more elastic fibers than hyaline cartilage, more flexible, supports external ear and epiglottis |
| What is fibrocartilage? | connective tissue similar to hylanine but less firm with thick collagen fibers provides tensile strength and absorbs compression found in intervertebral discus, and knee joints |
| What is nervous tissue? Function? Location? | includes the neurons and supporting cells sends electrical messages from sensory receptors to effectors found in brain, spine, (central nervous system) and peripheral nerves |
| What is skeletal muscle? FUnction? Location? | long striated cylindrical cells with many nuclei (because immature cells fused) controls VOLUNTARY movement found in muscles that attach to bones or skin |
| What is cardiac muscle? Function? Location? | branching, striated, singlenucleus cells that join at intercalated discs pumps blood through circulatory system found in heart walls |
| What is smooth muscle? FUnction? Location? | sheets of spindle shaped cells with central nuclei (NO STRIATIONS) controls involuntary actions to propel substances along internal passageways found in walls of hollow organs (esophagous) |
| What does tissue trauma result in? What is this characterized by? | Inflammation Swelling, Heat, Redness, Pain |
| How do tissues repair themselves? | Blood clotting restore blood supply (replace blood clot with granulation tissue) REgenerate cells fibrous tissues mature and resembles adjacent tissue Results in regenerated epitheilum with fibrotic (scar) tissue |
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