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BIOL 242--Exam 1
Taxonomy, classification, prokaryotes, protists, plant diversity & reproduction
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Provides protection for plants against desiccation | cuticle |
| Corn plants have both male and female structures, which are located in separate flowers, but both flowers are located on the same plant. This means that corn are _______ plants. | monoecious |
| Which characteristic(s) is/are shared by green algae and all seed plants? | cell walls of cellulose, photosynthesis, multicellularity |
| The outermost whorl of modified leaves of a flower (they tend to be green) are the _________. | sepals |
| Which protistan group are marine, possess two flagella, and cause red tide? | dinoflagellates |
| The ciliate protistan Paramecium and an insect both belong to the domain _________. | Eukarya |
| Sexual reproduction (involving meiosis) is a property of which groups of organisms? | Eukaryotes only |
| T/F: A superorder would have more species than would the phylum. | False |
| T/F: There could be two or more classes in the superorder. | False |
| T/F: There could be two or more orders in the superorder. | True |
| T/F: Two or more superorders make up one order. | False |
| T/F: Most angiosperms are homosporous. | False. (They are heterosporous.) |
| T/F: Angiosperms all have perfect flowers. | False |
| T/F: Most angiosperms produce triploid endosperm by the fusion of two eggs and one sperm. | False. (Triploid endosperm is produced by two sperm and one egg.) |
| Photosynthetic protists that have silicon in their cell walls and are often shaped like little petri dishes are in the protistan group _______________. | Bacillariophyta (diatoms) |
| The bacteria that move by modified flagella (axial filaments) running beneath the outer membrane | Spirochetes |
| A protistan cell divides into two daughter cells by the asexual process of _____________. | binary fission |
| An organism that must have oxygen present in order for the organism to use for aerobic respiration would be called ______________. | an obligate aerobe |
| A plant with the following characteristics--vascular tissue, a cuticle, nonflagellated sperm, and flowers--would be identified as which of the following: angiosperm, fern, moss, gymnosperm, or charophyte? | angiosperm |
| The ciliate protistan paramecium and an insect both belong to the domain ____________. | Eukarya |
| T/F: Most angiosperms have ovules and seeds enclosed in a stamen. | False |
| T/F: Gymnosperms and ferns both have chlorophyll. | True |
| T/F: Gymnosperms and ferns both have vascular tissues. | True |
| T/F: Gymnosperms and ferns both have sporangia. | True |
| T/F: Gymnosperms and ferns both have leaves. | True |
| If the name of a species was Quercus alba, what family is it in? | Cannot tell from the information given. |
| A bird's wing and a mammalian foreleg, as forelimbs, still have the same basic underlying structure and development. They are examples of ____________. | homologous structures |
| Xylem and phloem are found in _____________. | all ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms, but not in bryophytes (mosses). |
| Give the correct order of the taxonomic categories, going from most inclusive to least inclusive. | Domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species |
| Chains of rod-shaped bacteria would be called _______. | streptobacilli |
| The cytostome of a ciliate is analogous to your ____________. | mouth |
| In ferns, the gametophyte stage is __________ compared to the sporophyte. | smaller in size |
| In ferns, the gametophyte is [dependent/not dependent] upon the sporophyte for protection and nutrition. | not dependent |
| Taxonomy | the field of biology that is involved in naming, describing, and classifying organisms, both extant and extinct |
| Classification | the branch of taxonomy where various things are identified and grouped together; it orders and ranks things into a series of hierarchical levels |
| Phylogeny | the history of descent of a group of organisms from their common ancestor; the pattern and history of evolutionary descent of all of the taxa used in a classification of organisms |
| What is a domain? | a taxonomic category above kingdom |
| Compare sympatric and allopatric speciation. | ALLOPATRIC--occurs due to the physical separation (geographic isolation) of two populations of species. SYMPATRIC--occurs when a new species is formed within the range of the parent population, without geographic isolation. |
| Compare cladogenesis and anagenesis. | CLADOGENESIS--the budding off of one or more new species from a parental species that continues to exist and which may coexist whit the 'daughter species' for some time. ANAGENESIS--the transformation of one entire species into another through time. |
| Compare analogous and homologous structures. | ANALOGOUS STRUCTURES--very different structurally but similar in function. HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES--same underlying structure, development, and physiology, but may have a different function. |
| Compare convergent and divergent evolution. | CONVERGENT EVOLUTION--different organisms come up with similar adaptations (analagous structures) to specific environmental challenges. DIVERGENT EVOLUTION-- |
| Homoplasy | the similarity in appearance of two groups (anagagous structures) due to independent evolutionary change--is due to convergent evolution or evolutionary reversal |
| Compare derived and primitive characters. | DERIVED--a recent specialized trait. PRIMITIVE--an ancestral trait that has been retained by an organism. |
| Apomorphy | a specialized or derived trait (is more recent) |
| Plesiomorphy | a primitive or ancestral trait |
| Autapomorphy | a derived trait that is unique to one group in a clade |
| Symplesiomorphy | a shared primitive trait |
| Compare monophyletic, paraphyletic, and polyphyletic taxa. | MONOPHYLETIC--includes single ancestral species & all species descended from it. PARAPHYLETIC--some descendent species left out, common ancestor included. POLYPHYLETIC--common ancestor & some descendant species left out; members derived from 2+ ancestors. |
| Define the biological species concept. | A biological species is a population or group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed with each other in nature to produce viable, fertile offspring, but who cannot produce viable, fertile offspring with members of another species. |
| Describe how cladograms are formed (including outgroups, ingroups, and clades). | Constructed from a series of dichotomies; contains outgroup (key step), which is the least similar species to all the rest (the first to branch off); each branch or clade can be nested within a larger clade. |
| Describe Whitaker's five-kingdom scheme. | Monera (unicellular prokaryotes), Protista (primarily unicellular eukaryotes), Animalia (multicellular eukaryotes, holozoic nutrition), Plantae (multicellular eukaryotes capable of photosynthesis), Fungi (multicellular eukaryotes, saprozoic nutrition). |
| Compare the Archaea, Bacteria, and eukaryotes. | ARCHAEA--small prokaryotic organisms, many live in extreme environments. BACTERIA--small prokaryotic organisms. EUKARYA--organisms of all four eukaryotic kingdoms (protists, plants, fungi, animals). |
| Cocci | spherical (in bacteria) |
| Bacillus | rod-shaped (in bacteria) |
| Spirilla | spiral or helical in shape (in bacteria) |
| Staphylo- | clusters (of bacterial cells) |
| Strepto- | chains (of bacterial cells) |
| Describe the structures and functions of prokaryotic cell walls. | Maintains the shape of a cell, affords physical protection, prevents cell from bursting in a hypotonic environment. |
| Distinguish between Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. | GRAM-: more complex cell walls with less peptidoglycan & an additional cell membrane on outside with lipopolysaccharides; usu more threatening than G+. Doesn't hold violet dye. GRAM+: simpler cell walls with thick layer of peptidoglycan. Holds violet dye. |
| Peptidoglycan | A polymer of modified sugars cross-linked by short peptides. Found in cell walls of bacteria. Holds violet dye in Gram staining. |
| Capsule | a sticky protective layer outside the cell wall of many prokaryotes; made of polysaccharides; adhere the cells to their substratum and to each other (for colonial species); increase resistance to host defenses |
| Pili | surface appendages that can fasten pathogenic bacteria to the mucous membranes of its host; some are specialized for DNA transfer during conjugation |
| Flagella | locomotors that allow directional movement of cells; common in bacteria, where made of flagellin & rotates around its base; in eukaryotes, has '9pairs+2' arrangement of microtubules made of tubulin, enclosed by plasma membrane, & beats rather than turning |
| Flagellin | a protein found in prokaryotic flagella |
| Nucleoid | region inside prokaryotic cells where the chromosome is found |
| Plasmid | small ring of DNA found in prokaryotic cells |
| Binary fission | asexual reproduction in which organisms undergo mitosis and cytokinesis, forming two daughter cells |
| Conjugation | transfer of DNA from one prokaryotic cell to another through pilus via plasmids |
| Transduction | viruses transfer genes between prokaryotes |
| Mutation | a major source of genetic variation in prokaryotes; mistakes in 'spell checking' genetic information |
| Endospores | small hard cysts containing DNA of G+ bac; resting stages that can resist harsh environmental conditions |
| Endotoxin | fragments of membrane lipopolysaccharides of Gram- bacteria; cause fever and bleeding when the bacteria lyse |
| Exotoxin | toxins produced & released by living bacteria |
| Axial filaments | modified flagella found in spirochetes--run beneath the outer membrane |
| Gas vesicles | mode of movement for cyanobacteria; allow the bacteria to move upward and downward in their watery environment |
| Describe the four main methods by which prokaryotes obtain their energy and carbon. | Photoautotrophs--energy from light, C from CO2. Chemoautotrophs--energy from inorganic molecules, C from CO2. Chemoheterotrophs--energy from organic compounds, C from organic compounds. Photoheterotrophs--energy from light, C from organic compounds. |
| Explain why Gram-negative bacteria are often more pathogenic than Gram-positive bacteria. | Additional outer membrane protects G- from host defenses & antibiotics. Lipopolysaccharides on membrane oft toxic. Endotoxins (fragments of membrane) cause fever & bleeding when bacteria lyse. G+ bacteria have fewer defenses, succeptible to antibiotics. |
| List the major groups of Domain Bacteria, along with their general characteristics. | Proteobac: many fix N2, E coli. Cyanobac: photosynthetic, heterocysts, some fix N2. Chlamydias: intracel parasites, no peptidoglycan, some STDs. Gram+ bac: many in soil, some make antibiotics & endospores. Spirochetes: helical, move by modified flagella. |
| List the major groups of Domain Archaea, along with their general characteristics. | CRENARCHAEOTA--live in hot acidic environments. EURYARCHAEOTA--many are methanogens, some are halophiles. |
| List the 4 major "supergroups" for the eukaryotes and describe the major attributes for each. | SAR CLADE--DNA similarity, engulfed red alga. UNIKONTA--animals, fungi, amoebae. ARCHAEOPLASTIDA--DNA similarity, all higher multicellular plants plus red & green algae. EXCAVATA--have excavated grove on side of body. |
| List the groups within each eukaryotic supergroup and describe their distinguishing attributes (particularly the protists). | SAR--stramenopila, alveolata, rhizaria. EXCAVATA--Diplomonadida, Parabasalids, Euglenozoans. ARCHAEPLASTIDA--Rhodophyta, Chlorophyta, Plantae. UNIKONTA--Opisthokonta (choanoflagellates, Animalia, Nucleariids, Fungi), Amoebazoans. |
| Compare prokaryotic cells with eukaryotic cells. | PROKARYOTIC CELLS--smaller, simpler, no membrane-bound organelles, DNA is circular & located in nucleoid region, presence of plasmids. EUKARYOTIC CELLS--larger, more complex, have membrane-bound organelles, DNA linear & found in the nucleus, no plasmids. |
| Discuss protist form and function. | Unicellular. Most are aerobic & have mitochondria. Very nutritionally diverse. Single protistan cell must perform all the basic functions performed by the collective of specialized cells in plants & animals. Protozoa, fungus-like, and algae (plant-like). |
| Protozoa | heterotropic, animal-like protists |
| algae | photosynthetic, plant-like protists |
| mixotrophs | protists that combine photosynthesis with heterotrophic modes of nutrition |
| macronuclei | in ciliates: involved in day-to-day activity of cell, consists of many copies of the genome |
| micronuclei | in ciliates: involved in sexual reproduction, one cell may have multiple micronuclei |
| pseudopodia | "false feet"; used by amoebae for locomotion and feeding; alternate between "gel" and "sol" states |
| flagella/cilia | one or few, long, on the end of a cell, used for locomotion / many small hair-like projections outside the cell membrane, used for locomotion |
| phototroph/heterotroph | gets energy from light / gets energy from organic molecules |
| trichocysts | |
| contractile vacuoles | a special organelle possessed by some freshwater protists that uses ATP energy to get rid of excess water (due to hypotonic environment) |
| isogamy | the joining of two gametes that are alike and the same size |
| anisogamy | the joining of two gametes that are two different sizes |
| ectoplasm/endoplasm | amoeboid "gel" state, the foremost part of the pseudopodia during locomotion / amoeboid "sol" state, flows toward the "gel" cap during pseudopodic locomotion |
| holozoic | eating whole organisms (digestion is intracellular) |
| saprozoic | eating liquid food (it is digested outside the body and then brought in, ie extracellular) |
| cytostome | equivalent of cell mouth |
| food vacuole | formed by phagocytosis, cell brings piece of food inside and digests the food |
| cytoproct | equivalent of cell anus |
| exocytosis | |
| sporogony | |
| schizogony | |
| cyst | used by many protists to survive bad times in an environment |
| Describe and compare the 3 basic life cycles of eukaryotes. | Sporic. Gametic. Zygotic. |
| Which of the 3 eukaryotic life cycles do humans demonstrate? | Gametic |
| List characteristics that distinguish plants from other organisms. | apical meristems; multicell embryos dependent on parent plant; alteration of generations; sporangia produce spores; gametophytes of nonflower plants produce gametes w/in gametangia; adaptations for H2O (cuticle,stomata); vascular tissues; 2ndary compounds |
| List characteristics that plants share with green algae (charophytes). | 1) the way cellulose fibers are made; 2) presence of peroxisomes; 3) flagellated sperm cells; 4) certain details of cell division; 5) form and function of chloroplasts; 6) presence of plasmodesmata |
| apical meristems | localized regions of mitotically active cells at the tips of roots and shoots |
| sporangia | multicellular organs found on the sporophyte that produce spores |
| sporophyte | 2n mature adult plant (multicellular) |
| gametophyte | produce gametes |
| spore mother cells | 2n; within sporangium, they undergo meiosis and generate haploid spores |
| archegonia | the female gametangia, produces a single egg cell in a vase-shaped organ |
| antheridia | the male gametangia, produce many sperm cells that are released to the environment |
| embryo | 2n, multicellular, develops from the zygote |
| stomata | pores in the epidermis of leaves and other photosynthetic organs that allow the exchange of CO2 and O2 between outside air and the air spaces in the leaf; are major sites for H2O to exit leaves via evaporation |
| cuticle (in plants) | a waxy coat that helps protect the plant from microbial attack and also act as waterproofing to prevent excessive water loss |
| xylem | plant vascular tissue that conducts water up from the roots to the shoots |
| phloem | plant vascular tissue that conducts glucose from the leaves throughout the plant |
| Describe a generalized plant life cycle of alteration of generations. | |
| gametes/spores | |
| gametangia/sporangia | organs that produce gametes / organs that produce spores |
| Describe the problems and adaptations land plants have that distinguish them from the algae. | Cuticle to prevent dessication and protect from harmful UV rays, cell walls to allow plants to stand upright, secondary compounds to prevent being eaten by predators, different ways to achieve fertilization besides sperm swimming in water |
| List and describe the 4 major extant groups of land plants. | Bryophytes (moss), pterophytes (ferns), gymnosperms (non-flowering seed plants), angiosperm (flowering seed plants) |
| Explain how the bryophytes' life cycle is still tied to water (though living on land). | Bryophytes must still have water so that their flagellated sperm can swim to the eggs. |
| Describe the life cycle of a moss. | |
| Describe the basic structure of a moss gametophyte and sporophyte. | |
| foot (in mosses) | root-like part of the moss sporophyte that gathers nutrients and water from the parent gametophyte via transfer cells |
| capsule (in mosses) | sporangia; the site of meiosis and spore production |
| seta | the elongated stalk of a moss sporangium |
| calyptra | a protective cap of gametophyte tissue that covers the immature sporangium and is lost when the capsule is ready to release spores |
| peristome | the upper part of the moss sporangium capsule, often specialized for gradual spore release |
| sporopollenin (in moss) | |
| sporangia (in moss) | organs that produce spores, site of meiosis, the "capsule" |
| antheridia (in moss) | male sporangia |
| archegonia (in moss) | female sporangia |
| embryo (in moss) | |
| homosporous/heterosporous (in ferns) | A homosporous sporophyte produces a single type of spore, which develops into a bisexual gametophyte with both archegonia and antheridia. / A heterosporous sporophyte produces two kinds of spores. |
| megaspore/microspore | develops into female gametophyte / develops into male gametophyte |
| Describe the life cycle of a fern. | |
| Point out the major life cycle differences between mosses and ferns. | Mosses--gametophyte is dominant life stage. Ferns--sporophyte is dominant life stage. |
| Describe the basic structure of a fern. | rhizoids, fiddleheads, fronds with sori, sporangia, spores |
| rhizomes (in ferns) | underground horizontal stems with roots |
| sori (in ferns) | the sporangia clusters found on the underside of the fern's fronds |
| fronds (in ferns) | fern leaves |
| fiddleheads (in ferns) | small tightly coiled developing fronds that unfurl to become full-sized fronds |
| sporophylls (in ferns) | leaves |
| sporangia (in ferns) | diploid cells undergo meiosis to produce spores |
| sporophyte (in ferns) | dominant life stage, mature diploid adult plant, multicellular, have rhizomes and fronds |
| gametophyte (in ferns) | much reduced; tiny plants that grow on or just below the soil surface |
| Describe the characteristics of seed plants that have contributed to their success on land. | Cuticle, vascular tissue, stomata |
| How do spores and seeds differ? | Seeds are diploid and produce mature adult sporophytes. |
| Identify the two clades of seed plants. | Gymnosperms, angiosperms |
| heterosporous (in seed plants) | having two different sporangia (male and female) on the same plant; all seed plants are heterosporous |
| megaspores/microspores (in seed plants) | give rise to female gametophytes / give rise to male gametophytes |
| megasporangia/microsporangia (in seed plants) | have megaspore mother cells that produce megaspores, which give rise to female gametophytes / have microspore mother cells that produce microspores, which give rise to male gametopohytes |
| gametophytes (in seed plants) | produce gametes (egg and sperm); is dependent upon the parent sporopyte for nourishment |
| integuments (in seed plants) | layers of sporophyte tissues that envelop and protect the megasporangium |
| ovule (in seed plants) | consists of integuments, the megaspore, and the megasporangium |
| egg cell (in seed plants) | produced by the female gametophyte, if fertilized will develop into a new diploid sporophyte embryo |
| seed | mature ovary; a plant (sporophyte) embryo packaged along with a food supply within a protective coat |
| sperm (in seed plants) | male gamete |
| sporophyte (in seed plants) | 2n, the dominant life stage, mature adult plant, multicellular |
| seed coat | a protective covering derived from the integuments of the ovule |
| Describe the life history of a pine. Indicate which structures are part of the gametophyte generation and which are part of the sporophyte generation. | |
| Point out the major life cycle differences in ferns and pines. How do the sperm differ? | Fern sperm are flagellated and swim to the ova. Pine sperm are non-flagellated and are dispersed by the wind in pollen. |
| Distinguish between pollination and fertilization (in seed plants). | Pollination--pollen grain arrives at pistil. Fertilization--sperm and egg unite. |
| Describe how the needle-shaped leaves of pines and firs are adapted to dry conditions. | Less surface area to loose water from, thick waxy cuticle on leaves to prevent evaporation. |
| evergreen/deciduous | EVERGREEN--don't loose their leaves in the winter (stay green year-round). DECIDUOUS--loose their leaves in the winter. |
| Compare the life cycles of mosses, ferns, conifers, and flowering plants: dominant life cycle stage, homosporous/heterosporous, and mechanism of gamete transfer. | |
| Discuss the importance of vascular tissue (in plants). | |
| tracheids (in angiosperms) | |
| fiber cells (in angiosperms) | |
| vessel elements (in angiosperms) | |
| Define fruit and explain how fruits are modified in ways that help disperse seeds. | |
| pericarp | |
| Explain the process of double fertilization (in plants). | |
| How does the food supply for a gymnosperm and an angiosperms seed differ? | |
| endosperm (in plants) | |
| triploid | 3n endosperm that develops along with the plant embryo to provide nourishment |
| microspore mother cell (microsporocyte) | |
| Megaspore mother cell (megasporocyte) | |
| micropyle | a pore in the integuments of the ovule through which the pollen tube discharges 2 sperm cells into the female gametophyte |
| pollen grain | contains immature male gametophytes; each immature pollen grain has 2 haploid cells |
| fertilization tube (in seed plants) | a tube elongated from the pollen grain (after pollination) into the ovule, delivers one or two sperm into the female gametophyte |
| ovule (in seed plants) | contains the female gametophytes, develop in the ovary |
| Explain how the angiosperm seed differs from a pine seed. | has endosperm, usually develops with a fruit |
| List the 4 floral parts. | sepals, petals, stamen, carpel |
| Compare complete and incomplete flowers. | Complete flowers have all 4 floral parts. Incomplete flowers are missing one or more of the floral parts. |
| Compare perfect and imperfect flowers. | Perfect flowers have both male and female parts in the same flower (stamen and carpel). Imperfect flowers have either stamen or carpel but not both. |
| Compare staminate and pistillate (carpellate) flowers. | Staminate flowers have stamens but no pistil/carpel. Pistillate flowers have a pistil (carpel) but no stamens. They are imperfect flowers (and also incomplete). |
| monoecious/dioecious | having both male and female structures on the same plant / unisexual, have either male or female structures on a single plant |
| In angiosperms, explain by which generation, structure, and process spores and gametes are produced. | |
| Describe the formation and structure of the developing pollen grain and the cells. | |
| Describe the development of the embryo sac (in angiosperms) and explain what happens to each of its cells. | |
| pollen tube | a tube in the ovule that digests its way from the germinated pollen grain through the megasporangium |
| generative cell / tube cell (in angiosperms) | will eventually form sperm / encloses the generative cell, produces the pollen tube |
| synergid cells (in angiosperms) | 2 cells at one end of the embryo sac flanking the egg cell, function in the attraction and guidance of the pollen tube |
| antipodal cells (in angiosperms) | 3 cells that are opposite the synergid cells in the embryo sac, unknown function |
| polar nuclei (in angiosperms) | 2 extra nuclei in the ovule which share the cytoplasm of the large central cell of the embryo sac |
| Discuss what is meant by self-incompatibility. | Plants not being able to fertilize themselves. |
| Describe the development of the early plant embryo, from zygote to an embryonic plant with rudimentary organs. | |
| basal cell (in plants) | is produced in the first mitotic division of the zygote; continues to divide transversely, producing a thread of cells which anchors the embryo to its parent, passing nutrients to the embryo from the parent |
| terminal cells (in plants) | produced in the first mitotic division of the zygote; divdes several times and forms a spherical embryo that is attached to the suspensor |
| suspensor (in plants) | a thread of cells that anchors the embryo to its parent and passes nutrients to the embryo from the parent |
| proembryos (in plants) | |
| Cotyledon | seed leaf (leaves) |
| hypocotyl | the embryonic axis below the point at which the fleshy cotyledons are attached |
| radicle (in seeds) | the embryonic root, found at the end of the hypocotyl |
| epicotyl | the embryonic axis above the point at which the fleshy cotyledons are attached |
| plumule (in seeds) | the tip of the epicotyl, consisting of the shoot tip with a pair of miniature leaves |
| endosperm (in seeds) | 3n (2sperm+egg); develops in the center of the embryo sac in order to provide nutrients for the developing embryo |
| scutellum (in seeds) | a specialized cotyledon found in the monocot grasses, is a thin shield that absorbs nutrients from the endosperm |
| coleoptile (in seeds) | a protective sheath or covering of an embryonic/young shoot in a monocot |
| coleorhiza (in seeds) | a sheath that covers the young root of a monocot embryo |
| Describe the functions of a fruit and how it forms. | Aids in seed dispersal, provides nutrition to developing embryo |
| Define dormancy and explain why it is advantageous to plants. | Dormancy is a condition of extremely low metabolic rate and a suspension of growth and development. Helps seeds survive through unfavorable environmental conditions |
| What causes germination? | favorable environmental conditions that break the seed's dormant phase |
| Discuss the general modes of asexual reproduction in plants. | Fragmentation, cuttings, root systems, apomixis |
| fragmentation (plants) | a parent plant separates into parts that re-form whole plants |
| apomixis (in plants) | production of seeds without their flowers being fertilized |
| T/F: A typical angiosperm sporophyte is not capable of photosynthesis. | False |
| T/F: A typical angiosperm sporophyte is the plant produced by a single gamete. | False |
| T/F: A typical angiosperm sporophyte is a gamete-producing generation. | False |
| T/F: A typical angiosperm sporophyte is the smaller, short-lived generaton compared to the gametophyte. | False |
| synapomorphy | a derived trait shared by two or more groups in a clade |
| transformation | bacterial cells absorb and integrate fragments of DNA from their environment; allows considerable genetic transfer between prokaryotes, even across species lines |
| photoautotroph | gets energy from light and carbon from CO2 |
| chemoautotroph | gets energy from inorganic molecules and carbon from CO2 |
| photoheterotroph | gets energy from light and carbon from organic compounds (like sugars) |
| chemoheterotroph | gets energy from organic compunds and carbon from organic compounds. Examples: fungi, animals |
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