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bio2 summerC
allman exam 3
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| what organisms are in phylum Enchinodermata | sea stars/brittle stars/urchins/sea cucumbers |
| what are the synaphomorphies of enchinoderms | endoskeleton of calcareous plates, penta-radial symmetry, specialized water vascular system to pump water into body |
| ex. of class Asteroidea | sea stars |
| characteristics of class Asteriodea | endoskeleton plates loosely fused (allows flexibility), tube feet (locomotion) on each arm, digestive organs and gonads located in arms, stomach in central disk |
| describe the water vascular system in sea stars | 1) madreporite 2) stone canal 3) distributed to 5 arms through radial canal 4) each radial canal leads into ampillae which pushes water out of tube feet |
| what is a madreporite | filter that allows water into water vascular system |
| what is a stone canal | transports water from madreporite to ring canal (around central disk) |
| ex. of class Ophiroidea | brittle stars |
| characteristics of class Ophiroidea | more defined central disk, digestive glands/gonads in central disk, tube feet projections (lack suckers and not for locomotion), slender distinctive arms, crawl with arms |
| ex. of class Holothuroidea | sea cucumbers |
| characteristics of class Holothuroidea | soft bodies(skeleton embedded in body wall), elongated body lacking arms, 5 or more longitudinal rows of tube feet, tentacles around mouth are modified tube feet |
| ex. of class Echinoidea | sea urchins/san dollar (key hole urchin) |
| characteristics of class Echinoidea | calcareous plates fused to form rigid skeleton, may have spines for protection, tube feet from 5 symmetrically placed rows along body for locomotion |
| Cordata characteristics | notochord/dorsal-hollow nerve cord/pharyngeal slits/muscular post-anal tail |
| describe the notochord | flexible rod for body support, located between digestive tube and nerve cords, composed of fibrous tissue to provide support through length of body, NOT the vertebral column of animals |
| what is important about the 4 chordata characteristics | they are not necessarily present in adult forms but are always found in some parts of the organisms life |
| describe the dorsal hollow nerve cord | develops from ectoderm germ line that rolls into a tube dorsal to the notochord, develops into brain and spinal cord |
| what was found in previous studies about the dorsal hollow nerve cord | nerve cord is solid and typically located ventrally |
| describe pharyngeal slits | region posterior to mouth is pharynx, embryos, (for many chordates) develops into slits that open to the outside of body(gills, ear parts), allows water to pass through mouth and exit without going through digestive tract (fish) |
| what are the embryos in pharyngeal slits | series of pouches separated by groves |
| describe the pharyngeal slits in aquatic vertebrates | gill slits used for gas exchange |
| describe the pharyngeal slits in terrestrial vertebrates | develop into the parts of the ear |
| what do the pharyngeal slot pouches become? | 1st become the jaw, 5th or 7th becomes the pathway to lungs, 3rd forms inner ear |
| describe the post anal tail | extends posterior to anus, in most species it is lost during embryonic development, is muscular in structure |
| ex. of subphylum cephalochordata | lancelets |
| characteristics of of subphylum cephalachordata | blade-like bodies that exhibit all 4 characteristics as an adult |
| ex. of subphylum Urochordata | tunicates/sea squirts |
| characteristics of subphylum Urochordata | sessile marine animals(as adults), larvae are free swimming and contain all 4 chordate characteristics, adults DO NOT have a notochord, tail, or nerve cord |
| what are characteristics of clade Craniates | chordates with TRUE HEAD |
| describe the true head in clade Craniates | skull containing brain, eyes, and other sensory organs |
| ex. of class Myxini | hagfish |
| characteristics of class Myxini | lack jaws and vertebrae, notochord provides structural support, ALL 4 chordate characteristics, slime glands, mainly freshwater but some are marine |
| characteristics of subphylum vertebrata | have a true head region and complete vertebral column, well developed sensory systems and an extensive skull that functions to protect head |
| ex. of class Petromyzontida | lampreys |
| characteristics of class Petromyzontida | oldest lineage of vertebrates (jawless fish), freshwater or marine fish parasites, feed by clamping onto fish, use tongue to penetrate skin, all larvae live in freshwater and resemble lancelets, cartilaginous skeleton with plates extending from notochord |
| ex. of class Chrondricthyes | sharks/skates/rays |
| characteristics of class Chondricthyes | cartilaginous fish(no bone(ossification)), jaws with teeth that originated from ECTODERM, dermal denticles(homologous to teeth, sand paper skin), internal fertilization, lay egg(oviparous) or live birth(viviparous) |
| ex. of class Actinopterygii | tilapia/bass/catfish/grouper/etc.. |
| characteristics of class Actinopterygii | ray-finned fish(fin supported by long, flexible spines), gill links to circulatory system and protected by operculum, swim bladder for buoyancy control |
| what is an operculum | hard plates that cover gills |
| ex. of class Sarcopterygii | ONLY 4 species: coelacanth/lungfish |
| characteristics of class Sarcopterygii | lobed-finned fish (fins supported with rod-shaped bones surrounded by a thick layer of muscles), early species lived in shallow&brachkish water with thick vegetation, fins can move b/c of muscle (can crawl or move vegetation out of way) |
| what are the muscles of Sarcopterygii that surround rod-shaped bones | humerus, radius, and ulna (arm bones) |
| what is important b/c of the bones in Sarcopterygii | gave evolutionary rise to tertapods |
| ex. of class Lissamphibia | frogs/salamanders/caecilians |
| characteristics of class Lissamphibia | represented the 1st group of tetrapods to begin colonizing land but still connected to water, have double life that includes an aquatic stage(larval tadpole) and terrestrial adult stage |
| why is class Lissamphibia connected to water? | 1) no egg with shell 2) breath through skin (cutaneous respiration) 3) breeding (eggs are aquatic) 4) feeding (may feed on aquatic insects) |
| what is cutaneous respiration? | ables frogs and salamanders to breath through skin |
| describe tetrapods | Gnathostomes (jawed vertebrates) with limbs |
| ex. of class Reptilia | snakes/lizards/turtles/crocs/dinosuars |
| characteristics of class Reptilia | ECTOTHERMIC, presence of scales for protection, all groups have high diversity, loss of dependence on water because they have lungs and an amniotic egg |
| what was the first class that were not somewhat water dependent | Reptilia |
| what class represented the first group of tetrapods to begin colonizing land but are still connected to water | Lissamphibia |
| describe the amniotic egg | 4 membrane layers/shell, can be laid on land, Chorion (gas exchange layer(membrane)), allantois, amnion, yolk sac |
| what does allantois do | stores metabolic wastes (like a diaper) |
| describe the amnion | fluid-filled, surrounds embryo and provides protection |
| describe the yolk sac | nutrients to developing embryo (placenta in mammals) |
| characteristics of class Aves | adaptation to flight, bones are honey comb (hollow), making them lightweight(nematocyzed), toothless but w/ beak, forelimbs=wings from feathers, ENDOTHERMIC, efficient respiratory and circulatory system to keep tissues well supplied with O2 and nutrients |
| what did the feathers of birds modify from | scales |
| what controls the movement of wings on birds | large pectoral muscles called the keen |
| describe endothermic | produce their own body heat |
| describe ectothermic | cannot produce their own body heat |
| characteristics of class Mamamalia | evolved from a line of reptiles that survived the K-T extinction event, mammary glands, hair and a layer of fat under skin |
| what happened during the K-T extinction event | most dinosaurs were killed off |
| what is the mammary gland | produces milk for offspring |
| what does the layer of fat under skin help to do | helps to retain body heat |
| what are the teeth of mammals | incisors, canines, pre-molars, molars |
| what are the groups of mammals | monotremes, marsupials, placentals |
| what are monotremes | egg layers, have characteristics of reptiles, birds, mammals |
| ex. of a monotreme | duck-billed platypus |
| ex. of marsupial | opossum/kangaroo |
| ex. of placentals | humans |
| what are marsupials | early live birth before complete development, embryo climbs to pouch to complete development |
| what are placentals | embryo joined to mother by placenta, long parental care |
| what is the placenta | membrane system that provides nutrients to embryo |
| what is the first common challenge of animals to survive/reproduce | acquire, digest, and metabolize (assimilate) food materials |
| what is the second common challenge of animals to survive/reproduce | distribute metabolic products (remove waste and undigested material) |
| what is the third common challenge of animals to survive/reproduce | respond to changes in external environment (respond to stimuli such as mating calls) |
| what is the fourth common challenge of animals to survive/reproduce | escape predation |
| what is the fifth common challenge of animals to survive/reproduce | reproduce (finding mates) |
| what are the common challenged influenced by | morphology, anatomy, physiology |
| what is morphology | gross structure of an organism, what they look like, components, parts (shape/structure: form) |
| what is anatomy | gross internal structure of organism/design |
| what is physiology | the mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of living organisms |
| what are morphology, anatomy, physiology known as | life history traits b/c they influence reproduction of living organisms |
| describe survivorship and reproductive success | animals with relatively high survivorship or reproductive success have a HIGHER FITNESS |
| what is the life history theory | predicts that selection will favor traits that have higher fitness, match with form/function occurs at all levels |
| what are the 4 primary cell tissue types | epithelial, connective, nervous, muscular |
| describe epithelial tissue | sheets of cell that cover surface(skin,body cavities,organs), barrier against:mechanical injury, pathogens, fluid loss, forms tight junctions b/w cells to prevent passage of material between cells, material must pass through cells (selective transport) |
| what are the epithelial tissue types | cuboidal, simple columnar, simple squamous |
| what is cuboidal tissue | cube shaped, secrete kidney tubules and glands |
| what is simple columnar tissues | have a lot of cytoplasm for absorption, absorption through intestines |
| what is simple squamous tissue | rapid cell division, abrasive location (esophagus/skin) |
| characteristics of epithelial tissue | lies on basement membrane; a sheet of proteins secreted by ep tissue (binds ep tissue to underlying connective tissue), all AVASCULAR, absorb nutrients via DIFFUSION from blood vessels in underlying connective tissue |
| describe connective tissue | mostly extracellular matrix of proteins with FEW cells; fibroblasts, macrophages, includes;(cartilage, bone, blood), functions to bind/support other tissues |
| what are the functions of connective tissues | cushions, insulates, rigid support, nutrient transport, distribution, immune defense, fat storage |
| describe muscle tissue | responsible for nearly all body movements, cells contain actin and myosin proteins which enables cells to contract/relax, makes coordinated movement |
| what are tendons | attaches muscle tissue to bone |
| what are the muscle tissue types | skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, smooth muscle |
| what is skeletal muscle | connected/runs along with skeletal system (voluntary) |
| what is cardiac muscle | heart(inside), have intercalated disks to separate fibers (only cardiac is involuntary) |
| what is smooth muscle | (g.i. tract, esophagus, stomach, intestine), works life the annelids to move (peristalsis), INVOLUNTARY |
| what are ligaments | attaches muscle to muscle |
| what is nervous tissue | composed of neurons and support cells, specialized to initiate/conduct electrical signals (nerve impulses) as a means of rapid communication between body parts, (brain, spinal cord, nerves made of neuron cells), are AMITOTIC (dont use mitosis) |
| what are organs | collection of tissue in specific functional centers, work together to form organ systems(carry out major functions of verts and most inverts), each system has specific functions and must be coordinated w/ other systems for the animal to survive/function |
| describe what harbor seals do | when they dive they slow their heart rate, collapse lungs, and lower their body temp b/c they need less oxygen, this is coordinated through the nervous system and endocrine system |
| describe the nervous system | very specific, fast, short term |
| describe the endocrine system | stress hormones, not specific b/c the hormones can go everywhere in the body via the blood stream, broadly distributed, slow but last longer |
| what is the hypothalamus | environmental stimules sends signal to the anterior pituitary gland which responds to GnRH to make 2 more hormones that will make it to the testis and start reproducing more hormones(testosterone/sperm), NEGATIVE FEEDBACK |
| describe the exchange with the environment | complex animals have internal surfaces specialized for exchange with external environment(lungs,small intestine), internal cells are surrounded by interstitial fluid that connects all cells, complex animals can control the quality of interstitial fluid |
| what is homeostasis | the maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment even when the external environment changes, is also any response that acts to reverse or minimize a change in the internal environment is a homeostasis response |
| ex. of homeostasis | pH/osmotic pressure/temperature/hormone concentration/waste product concentration/etc... |
| what is negative feeback | the variable changes in a direction opposite to the initial change |
| what is the dynamic state | achieved in which temperature changes but varies, but always within a narrow range=steady rate |
| what is a regulator | uses control mechanisms to regulate an internal variable, prevent changes that might result from external changes |
| ex. of a regulator | freshwater fish: maintain a stable internal solute concentration that is different from external environment |
| what is a conformer | allows internal condition to vary with external condition |
| describe the ectothermic mechanisms for maintaining body temperatures | gains heat mostly from the external environment, poorly insulated |
| describe the endothermic mechanisms for maintaining body temperatures | body is heated by heat generated by metabolic processes, well insulated by a lot of fat and adipose tissue |
| ex. of endotherms | birds/mammals |
| describe thermoregulation | process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a tolerable range |
| describe metabolism | amount of energy used per unit of time, measured in amount of ATP used over time, typically measured as oxygen consumption (required for ATP) |
| what are the 4 demands of energy | maintenance(3rd)/growth(2nd)/reproduction(4th)/storage(1st) |
| what is an energy budget | amount of energy being put into each of the 4 demands |
| what are the competing demands of energy | energy is limited and more energy into one demands=less to others |
| what is bioenergetics | metabolism is a function of energy flow |
| what are the animals diets supporting energy requirements | food being taken in(eaten), taken apart(digested), and taken up(absorption/assimilation), fuels ATP production and serves as a raw material for biosynthesis, need organic carbon (from sugars) and organic nutrients (from proteins) |
| what are essential nutrients | required but not synthesized by our body (cant make by itself) |
| what are essential amino acids | humans can synthesize about 50% of the 20 aminos necessary to make proteins, animal products are complete: providing all essential aminos, most plants are incomplete b/c any given plant product only provides a couple of amino acids |
| ex. of essential amino acids | meat/eggs/cheese |
| what are essential fatty acids | necessary for membrane and hormones, animals can synthesize most fatty acids but still need many unsaturated fatty acids |
| ex. of essential fatty acids | humans require linoleic acid to make membranes |
| what are essential vitamins | organic molecules required in very small amounts, water soluble, fat soluble |
| how many essential vitamins for humans | 13 |
| describe water soluble for essential vitamins | tend to function as coenzymes (vitamin C to produce connective tissue) |
| describe fat soluble for essential vitamins | vitamin A (visual pigments), vitamin K (blood clotting), vitamin D (bone formation) |
| what are essential minerals | inorganic nutrients we need in small amounts, species specific requirements, iron (hemoglobin) |
| what is the species specific requirement for humans with essential minerals | humans need a large quantity of calcium for nerve function and phosphorus for ATP and nucleic acid production |
| what are the 4 phases of food processing | feeding/ingestion(how food is acquired;eaten),digestion (breaks food into absorbable nutrients),absorption(uptake of small molecules into distribution system and ultimately to the cells), elimination(removing undigested material from the digestive system) |
| what are the types of feeders | suspension feeders/substrate feeders/fluid feeders/bulk feeders |
| describe suspension feeders | filters large amounts of water (whales) |
| describe substrate feeders | organisms feed on surface of other structures such as a leaf and a rock (caterpillar) |
| describe fluid feeders | feed on fluid such as blood (mosquitos/leeches) |
| describe bulk feeders | consume large amounts of food at a given time (us and most animals) |
| what are the 2 types of digestion | mechanical digestion/enzymatic hydrolysis |
| describe mechanical digestion | chewing, breaks food into smaller pieces for increased surface area |
| describe enzymatic hydrolysis | enzymes catalyze reactions that break food bonds of larger molecules (requires a water molecule) |
| what is intracellular digestion | hydrolysis of large molecules within food vacuole, food vacuoles fuse with lysosomes: contain hydrolytic enzymes within membrane (digestive organelle within cell that uses water) |
| what type of digestion do sponges use | intracellular digestion |
| what is extracellular digestion | hydrolysis occurs in compartments outside of the animals body (most animals), gastrovascular cavity |
| describe the gastrovascular cavity in extracellular digestion | compartment with one opening (mouth and anus) where digestion and distribution occurs |
| ex. of extracellular digestion | cnidarians/flatworms |
| what is the alimentary canal | digestive tube extending between 2 openings: a mouth and anus, muscular flow through system with specialized compartments for sequential digestion and absorption (smooth muscle), can ingest food while previous meals are still being digested |
| what are the initial steps in the oral cavity | mechanical digestion by teeth/ chemical digestion by saliva/ chewing/ stomach/ small intestine/ large intestine/ excretion |
| describe specialized teeth | incisors and canines (tear/rip food particles), premolars and molars (smash food particles, used for plant material) |
| describe saliva | contains amylase and mucin |
| what is amylase | enzyme that hydrolyzes starch (sugars and potatoes) |
| what is mucin | glycoprotein that protects the mouth from abrasion and reduces damage to walls of mouth from chewing, lubricates |
| describe the processes of chewing | forms food ball(bolus), bolus lubricated w/ mucin to help swallow, nasal passage connected to throat, voluntary muscles push bolus into pharynx, epiglottis closes(involuntary) to send bolus into esophagus and out of trachea, bolus moved by peristalsis |
| describe the stomach | muscular, expandable sac located in upper abdomen |
| what are the functions of the stomach | store ingested food(regulate flow), mechanical and chemical digestion, layers of muscles churn/mix food, gastric juices containing hydrochloric acid and pepsin, controls passage of food, pyloric sphincter |
| what do the gastric juices and pepsin do | reduces pH (2) and begins PROTEIN digestion |
| what does the pylotic sphincter do | opens/closes to allow passage and releases chyme (food) into small intestine |
| describe the small intestine | a narrow muscular tube that is fed by stomach, includes the duodenum (upper part of small intestine) |
| what are the functions of the small intestine | complete digestion, pancreas, liver, absorb small molecules into the blood, increase surface absorption (villi), may be passive/active transport thru epithelial cells to blood vessels |
| describe complete digestion in the small intestine | chyme from the stomach mixes with digestive enzymes from pancreas, liver, and gall bladder |
| what is the pancreas | bicarbonate to buffer acid to pH=7 |
| what is the liver | bile (stored in gall bladder) breaks down fats/lipids |
| what is the small intestine lined with | villi |
| what are villi | like cilia and extend into cavity of tubes, they increase the surface area to increase absorption |
| what cells line the villi | epithelial cells |
| epithelial cells lined with villi have even more what | microvilli |
| what are microvili | increase the surface area to maximum increased absorbance into the bloodstream |
| what are the components on the small intestine | SI has many folds and villi projections that contain small projections (microvilli) |
| describe the large intestine | end of the line, colon, contains E. Coli, rectum, cecum |
| what is the colon | muscular tube that serves to recover water, feces become more solid as it moves through it |
| why is small amounts of E. Coli important | produces essential vitamins (vitamin K) |
| what is the rectum | end of the large intestine where feces are removed from the body |
| what is the cecum | aids in breakdown of plant material (small in humans) b/c animals have a hard time breaking down cellulose |
| describe the cecum | herbivores have longer alimentary canals due to the difficulty of digesting plant material (cellulose), requires symbiotic bacteria and protists held in fermentation chambers (rumen and reticulum) to break down cellulose |
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