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bio2 summerC
allman exam2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| plants and protists? | multicellular/photosynthetic red/brown/green algae |
| what is the cell wall of plants and protists made of? | cellulose (brown,green algae; dinoflagellates) |
| what protists are land plants most closely related to? | green algae; evolved from freshwater green algae |
| describe plants and charophtyes | rosetta-shaped cellulose synthesizing complexes in plasma membrane; peroxisome enzymes (O2-->H2O); flagellated sperm |
| what are the traits of plants? | alternation of generations, walled spores, multicellular gametangia |
| what is alternation of generations? | haploid and diploid phases have a multicellular component |
| describe the fern life cycle (haploid vs diploid) | gametophyte: multicellular haploid (n); sporophyte: multicellular diploid (2n) |
| describe walled spores | produced in sporangia which produces spores with sporopollenin (thick wall of spores (meiosis)) |
| what is multicellular gametangia? | multicellular organ which produces gametes through mitosis |
| what is the archegonium? | female: produces single non-motile egg |
| what is the antheridium? | male: sperm is released |
| what is the apical meristem? | localizing regions of cell division at tips of roots/stems; location of growth |
| characteristics of algae | minerals from water/sunlight received in water/water supported by water/sperm and spores swim through water |
| characteristics of plants | minerals from soil/water from soil/sunlight above soil/ weight not supported by air/ less water for sperm to swim |
| what are the 3 broad groups of plants? | nonvascular/vascular seedless/seed plants |
| describe nonvascular plants | plants without transport system/bryophytes/ very small |
| describe vascular seedless plants | plants with transport system but lack seeds/sporophyte dominant/well developed roots and leaves |
| describe seed plants | embryo packaged with supply of nutrients inside protective coat |
| describe bryophyta | mosses/liverworts/hornworts; small herbaceous non-woody plants/only a few cells thick/ no internal vessels for tansport/gametophyte dominant |
| what are the parts of transport system in vascular plants? | xylem/phloem |
| whats is xylem | vascular tissue to transport water/minerals from roots to leaves |
| what is phloem | distributes sugars/amino acids from leaves to roots |
| characteristics of roots | anchor plant/ absorb water and nutrients from soil/vascularized |
| how did roots evolve? | from stems growing at the surface and then moving underground |
| function of leaves | increase the surface area/primary location for photosynthesis |
| what are the 2 types of leaves? | microphylls/megaphylls |
| describe microphylls | only in lycophytes (vascular seedless plants) small with a single vascular strand |
| describe megaphylls | highly branched vascular strand |
| what does phylum lycophyta include? | club mosses |
| when were lycophytes widespread? | carboniferous period |
| what types of lycophytes were present during the widespread period? | tree lycopytes |
| what types of lycophytes exist today? | mostly small herbaceous lycophytes |
| what does phylum Pterophyta include? | ferns; large conspicuous leaves |
| characteristics of seed plants? | reduction of gametophyte/ heterospory (2 types of spores formed)/seed; embryo, food supply, and protective coat |
| what are the 2 types of spores produced in seeded plants? | megaspores/microspores |
| describe megaspores | female gametophyte within seeds |
| descrive microspores | male gametophyte within pollen |
| when did human cultivation of seed plants first begin? | 13,000 years ago with wheat/maize/bananas |
| what are the 2 types of seed plants? | gymnosperms/angiosperms |
| what is the gymnosperm in a seed plants? | cone |
| what is the angiosperm in a seed plants? | flower |
| when did gymnosperms appear on Earth? | 305 mya |
| what are some types of gymnosperms? | cypress/pine/sequoia/spruce/fir/redwood |
| how does pollination happen in gymnosperms? | inside ovule is the megaspore; as pollen approaches, megaspore gets larger(holds egg), pollen tube leads to fertilization and the megaspore gets to the same size as ovule |
| when did angiosperms appear on Earth? | 100 mya |
| characteristics of angiosperms? | flowering plants (seed plants that produce flower)/largest group of plants (250000 species)/seed dispersal by animals |
| what portion dominates the angiosperm life cycle? | sporophyte |
| what surrounds angiosperm seeds? | fruit (mature ovary developed at base of flower; ovule) |
| what are the 2 types of fruits? | fleshy/dry |
| what is the life cycle trends in plants? | dominant gametophyte --> dominant sporophyte |
| what is the transport trends in plants? | non-vascular --> vascular |
| what is the habitat trends in plants? | moist --> arid |
| what is the fertilization trends in plants? | swimming sperm(spores)-->wind-blown(naked seeds)-->animal(protected by fruit) |
| what are shoot systems? | leaves and shoots/pretty much everything above ground |
| what are root systems? | roots |
| what is the function of roots? | anchor plants and absorb minerals/water |
| characteristics of roots | non-photosynthetic |
| what are the 2 main types of roots? | taproots/fibrous roots |
| describe taproots | 1 main-root with some smaller lateral roots (stores sugar that plant will use while flowering |
| what is an example of tap roots? | carrots |
| describe fibrous roots | no single big root/mat of thin roots spreading just below surface |
| what is an example of fibrous roots? | grass |
| why do we plant grass? | fibrous roots secure the soil and prevent erosion |
| what are root hairs? | increase surface area for water absorption |
| what are aerial roots? | extends from trunk or branches to reach ground |
| what are some types of aerial roots? | prop roots/buttress roots/strangling roots |
| describe prop roots | support tall, top heavy plants |
| what is an example of prop roots? | red mangrove |
| describe strangling roots | plant germinates on branches of other trees and send roots to ground while wrapping around tree |
| describe buttress roots | support trunks of large trees in tropical forests |
| what are pneumatophores? | "air roots" that project above water surface to absorb oxygen |
| what is an example of a pneumatophore? | black mangrove |
| what are storage roots? | many plants will store food and water in roots |
| what is an example of storage roots? | carrots/radishes |
| what does stems consist of? | nodes and internodes |
| what is a node? | where the leaf attaches |
| what is an internode? | segments between leaves |
| what are the 2 types of buds? | axillary/apical |
| describe an axillary bud | develop at node and can grow into new branches (bushy) |
| describe a apical bud | terminal; located at shoot tips and is responsible for vertical growth |
| what is the function of shoots? | elevates leaves/supports fruit or flower/transports fluids between roots and leaves/production of new tissue |
| what is a rhizome? | horizontal underground shoots that grows underground |
| what is a bulb? | vertical underground shoot that consists mostly of leaves on a shortened stem |
| what is an example of a bulb? | onion |
| what is a stolon? | runners; horizontal surface shoots that form new plantlets at each node |
| describe leaves | main photosynthetic organ/ typically flat and thin/ may store water and food |
| what are the 3 types of leaves? | simple/compound/double compound |
| what are some modifications of leaves? | tendrils/spines/storage/reproduction or bracts/trapping |
| what are tendrils? | aid in climbing and supporting weight |
| what are spines? | protection; moist |
| what are reproduction or bracts of plants? | leaves used to attract pollinators, color |
| what are trapping plants? | carnivorous plants that digest insects |
| what are the 3 tissue types? | dermal/vascular/ground |
| what is dermal tissue? | outer protective layer/herbaceous plants-single thick epidermis layer/wood plant-multiple layers (periderm) |
| what is vascular tissue? | long distance transport of materials/xylem and phloem |
| what is ground tissue? | all remaining tissue, contains specialized vascular cells for storage/support; pith and cortex |
| describe pith | internal to vascular |
| describe cortex | external to vascular |
| what is the lateral meristem? | responsible for secondary (horizontal) growth/ girth and thickness/ extends along length of roots/shoots |
| what is vascular cambium? | adds a layer of vascular tissue (xylem/phloem) |
| what is cork cambium? | replaces epidermis with periderm (new bark layer)/ adds tree rings |
| are fungi autotrophic or heterotrophic? | heterotropic (they cannot produce their own food/energy) |
| where do the majority of fungi live? | underground |
| characteristics of fungi | very large/diverse group (100,000 species), majority of life is underground, important decomposers |
| what is the smallest part of fungi? | mushroom |
| why is fungus considered a decomposer? | break down dead organic material and recycle the vital nutrients back to the environment where they are available for other organisms |
| how to fungi feed? | heterotrophs/absorption |
| explain absorption | fungus will secrete a hydrolytic enzyme to break down complex molecules that can be absorbed |
| do fungi absorb dead or living material? | both, can be decomposers (dead), parasites (living), or mutualists (better both organisms) |
| what is an example of mutualistic fungi? | lichens; relationship between fungus and algae |
| why are fungi bigger underground? | enhanced surface area for absorption ability |
| what is mycelium? | tubular cell walls made of chitin; includes multiple cells divided by septa (with pores) |
| what are coenocyte fungi? | fungus that lacks septa so the hyphae is one continuous cytoplasmic mass with thousands of free moving nulei |
| what is septa? | division between cells |
| how can fungus feed on living animals (hypha)? | specialized hypha to feed in living animals |
| how can a fungus feed on a plant? | specialized hypha (haustoria) |
| what does haustoria do? | allows fungus to extract nutrients from plants (host) |
| what are mycorrhizae? | mutualism between fungus and plant roots/fungus improves delivery oh phosphate and other minerals to plant/ plant provides fungus with carbohydrates/ most plants needs this to survive |
| how can fungus reproduce? | sexually or asexually |
| what are the 2 stages of sexual fungus reproduction? | plasmogamy/karyogamy |
| what is plasmogamy? | union of cytoplasm from hyphae of 2 mating types through breakdown of plasma membrane between them that contains 2 nuclei |
| what is karyogamy? | haploid nuclei from both cells will fuse to form diploid cell (meiosis) which is that zygote. through meiosis the zygote will form haploid spores, germinates, and new mycelium |
| how is mold different than yeast? | haploid spores |
| how is yeast different than mold? | single celled |
| how many groups of fungus are there? | 5 |
| what are the groups of fungus? | chytrids/zygomycetes/glomeromycetes/ascomycetes/basidiomycetes |
| characteristics of chytrids | most primitive group/ decomposers and parasites/unique flagellated spores |
| what are zoospores used for? | mobility |
| characteristics of zygomycetes | fast growing molds/zygosporangium is formed when hyphae from 2 mating type strands meet to form heterokaryotic cell/ mostly asexual reproduction through developing of upright hyphae w/ sporangium at apex |
| characteristics of glomeromycetes | nearly all from mycorrhizae (mutual relationship with plants) |
| characteristics of ascomycetes | largest group/yeasts,morels(mushrooms),truffles/marine,freshwater, terrestrial/"sac fungus"-produces spores (ascospores) within fruiting body (ascocarp) |
| describe the life cycle of ascomycetes | reproduce sexual or asexual with plasmogamy (ascosporum)-->karyogamy-->meiosis forms haploid spores from zygote |
| what is the parasitic group of ascomycetes? | cordyceps; all endoparasitoids |
| characteristics of basidiomycetes | "showy" fungus/mushrooms/puff balls/toad stools/shelf fungus(on trees); known as fungus with distinctive "mushroom cap" (basidiocarp) |
| what is a basidiocarp? | mushroom cap with gills running along the ventral portion of the cap; fruiting body |
| how to basidiocarps reproduce? | only through sexual reproduction |
| how many species of animal are there? | 1.8 million known extant and extinct species. likely well over 10 million |
| what is "animals" closest ancestor? | fungi; diverged about 1 billion years ago./ Choanoflagellates (protists) |
| define animals | multicellular, heterotrophic, eukaryotes |
| how do animals gain nutrition? | feed by ingesting food within body |
| what is unique structure to animals? | collagen |
| what is collagen? | protein between cells to provide structure and support |
| characteristics of animals? | nerve cells/muscle cells/skin/circulatory system |
| what do nerve cells do? | rapid communication and the integration of environmental stimuli (color change/heat sense) |
| what do muscle cells do? | provide body movement |
| what does skin do? | regulates water loss |
| what does the circulatory system do? | internal transport of nutrients and respiratory gases (O2/CO2) |
| what is cleavage? | series of mitotic cell divisions without cell growth |
| what is a blastula? | single layer of cells surrounding the blastocoel (large cavity) |
| what is gastrulation? | formation of the blastopore, adult tissue developes |
| what does the blastopore become? | mouth or anus |
| what are the 3 types of symmetry? | radial/bilateral/asymmetry |
| what is radial symmetry? | body parts are around one (central axis) |
| what is bilateral symmetry? | one single plane divided into 2 halves |
| what is asymmetry? | no plane of symmetry |
| what is an example of asymmetry? | sponge |
| what is tissues? | specialized cells isolated from other tissues by a membrane |
| when does tissue form in development? | gastrulation; embryos become layered with tissue called germ layers |
| what are the 3 germ layers? | ectoderm/endoderm/mesoderm |
| what does the ectoderm layer consist of? | skin, brain, nervous tissue |
| what does the endoderm layer consist of? | digestion, respirator systems |
| what does the mesoderm layer consist of? | muscles, bone, blood, skin, reproductive organs |
| what does diploblastic mean? | only 2 germ layers |
| what is an example of diploblastic? | jellyfish and corals |
| what does triploblastic mean? | all 3 germ layers |
| describe the body cavity | presence or absents; coelom, acoelem |
| describe coelom | medoserm-lined, fluid filled space between digestive tract and body wall |
| describe acoelom | lacks a body cavity |
| what is an example of acoelom? | flatworm |
| describe pseudocoelomates | fluid-filled cavity that is not lined by mesoderm tissue |
| what is an example of pseudocoelomates? | parasitic worms |
| describe coelomates | cavity lined with mesoderm tissue: internal organs move/grow independently of body wall (true coelom) |
| describe development modes (coelomates only) | include cleavage pattern, coelom formation, and fate of the blastopore |
| describe cleavage patterns | early cell division/ protostomes: spiral/diagonal pattern/ unequal longitudinal division/ deuterostomes |
| describe deuterostomes | radial/ intermediate pattern/ equal longitudinal division |
| define intermediate pattern | fate is not yet determined |
| define longitudinal division (equal) | the parent and daughter cells are the same size |
| define longitudinal division (unequal) | the parent cells are larger than the daughter cells |
| describe coelom formation | body cavity and mesoderm material (coelomates only)/ protostomes and deuterostomes |
| describe protostomes in the coelom formation | mesoderm from ectoderm and endoderm layers that then split |
| describe deuterostomes in the coelom formation | mesoderm from out pockets of endoderm |
| describe the fate of the blastopore | opening formed during gastrulation, difference in protostomes and deuterostomes |
| describe protostomes in the fate of the blastopore | blastopore becomes the organisms mouth |
| describe deuterostomes in the fate of the blastopore | blastopore becomes the organisms anus |
| define organogenesis | process by which germ layers start forming rudimentary organs and organ systems |
| what does organogenesis require? | differential expression of genes |
| how is cellular differentiation regulated? | by the hox gene complex |
| what is the hox gene complex? | products are transcription factors, small proteins can turn gene on/off, and regulate gene expression in different regions of body plan |
| what is an example of phylum porifera? | sponges |
| characteristics of phylum porifera | sessile/suspension feeders/cellular digestion/multicellular w/ flagellated cells/ porous body/ asymmetric/ cellular division of organization |
| how many cell layers are found in phylum porifera? | 2 layers that are similar to ectoderm/endoderm that are separated by a gelatinous matrix called mesohyl |
| what is mesohyl? | gelatinous matrix that separates the 2 layers of porifers |
| how does water move through sponges? | water enters incurrent pores(ostia)/enters central chamber(spongocoel)/passed through spongocoel by choanocytes(specialized flagellated cells)/exits body via excurrent pores(osculum) |
| what is an ostia | incurrent pores |
| what is spongocoel | central chamber of sponges |
| what is choanocytes | special flagellated cells of sponge |
| what is a osculum | excurrent pores |
| define serial hermaphordites | each individual functions as male and female (1 at a time) |
| how to serial hermaphordites reproduce? | ameobocytes and chanocytes make gametes/ eggs held within mesohyl and sperm are released/ fertilization occurs in mesohyl followed by development of flagellated larva |
| describe sponge tissue | lack true tissue and have skeletons made of spicules of fibers |
| describe the skeletal components of sponges | spicules/spongin |
| describe spicules of sponges | CaCO3 or SiO2 components made by specialized cells |
| describe spongin | fibrous organic collagen (bath sponges) |
| what are the 3 classes of sponges? | demospongia/hexactinellidae/calcarea |
| describe class demospongia | spongin fibers or SiO2 spicules (or both)/ makes up 90% of all sponges |
| describe class hexactinelllidae | SiO2 spicules (glass sponges)/ venus flower basket |
| describe class calcarea | CaCO3 spicules only/ very small/ some have radial symmetry |
| describe phylum Cnidarian | ectoderm and endoderm/ radial body symmetry/ 2 life stages/carnivorous/ central digestive compartment/ diploblastic/cnidocytes |
| describe the central digestive compartment of cnidarians | gastrovascular cavity with a single cavity that serves as both mouth and anus |
| what does diploblastic mean | true ectoderm and endoderm seperated by mesoglea |
| what is mesoglea? | jelly-like layer |
| what are cnidocytes | cells with nematocyst threads used for defense (harpoons into skin), projections on each tentacle with coiled thread within, triggers and coil is released |
| how are cnidarians classified? | polyp/mdsusa life stages |
| what are the 3 classes of cnidarians? | hydrozoa/scyphozoa/anthozoans |
| describe class hydrozoa | contains hydra (freshwater)/ obelia (polyp)/ fire coral (not a true coral) |
| describe obelia | has a feeding polyp with tentacles and a reproductive polyp with medusa buds inside/ asexual reproduction through budding |
| describe class scyphozoa | "true jellies", medusa is dominant life cycle/ polyp is reduced or absent |
| describe class anthozoans | anemones/corals with dominant polyp stage and no medusal stage, solitary or colonial, obtain energy from photosynthetic unicellular algae living within tissue (zooanthelle), mutualistic relationships |
| what is zooanthelle | photosynthetic algae living within tissue or coral |
| describe mutualistic relationship for anthozoans | zooxanthelle/ restricts coral to shallow, clear, warm water/ symbiotic relationship/ not found in deep oceans/ coral bleeching |
| what is coral bleeching | algae dies or leaves coral when waters get too warm or too acidic |
| characteristics of lophotrocozoans | triploblastic/ many posses locophore/ may have trocophore larvae/ ganglia |
| what is a locophore | crown of tentacles |
| what are trocophore larvae | small diamond shaped larvae in water with cilia |
| what is a ganglia | brain-like but not actual brain |
| which phylums fit into clade lophotrocozoans | platyhelminthes/rotifera/mollusca/annelids |
| characteristics of phylum platyhelminthes | flatworms/dorso-ventrall flattened/gastrovascular cavity branches into body/ marine,freshwater,damp terrestrail/ gas exchange and waste removal across cells via diffusion/ no circulatory system |
| characteristics of class turbellaria | free-living(non parasitic)/ fresh and marine/ ventral mouth on eversible pharynx (mouth on bottom)/ ciliated epidermis aids in locomotion |
| characteristics of class trematoda | endoparasitic flukes/ have multiple hosts within life cycle (humans&snails)/ suckers&hooks for attachment/ adults usually feed on blood |
| what is schistoma | type of trematoda, 2nd most common/lethal/expensive parasitic disease/ humans and snails |
| characteristics of class cestoda | tapeworms/ endoparasites of vertebrate intestines/ specialized epidermis to resist host digestive enzymes/ no digestive tract/ segmented body |
| what are proglodids | segments of tapeworm, contain hundreds of larva and release them |
| characteristics of phylum mollusca | soft-bodied/ many with shell (possibly internal)/ bilateral coelomates/ muscular foot/ dorsal visceral mass/ mantle/ redula/ open circulatory system |
| what are some examples of phylum mollusca | chitons/clams/scallops/snails/squid/octopus |
| characteristics of class polyplacophora | chitons/ dorso-ventrally flattened/ shell has 8 interlocking plates/ liv on rocks in intertidal/ consume algae on rocks/ slow moving |
| characteristics of class gastropdia | snails and slugs/ well developed heads w/ eye stalks and sensory tentacles/ opercullum/ torsion |
| what is an opercullum | calcareous structures used to "close door" when animal retreats into shell |
| what is torsion | rotates visceral mass 180 degrees to shit |
| characteristics of class bivalvia | 2 shells/ muscles/ valves/ adductor muscles/ suspension feeder/ crystalline structure/ foot used to burrow in sand |
| what are some examples of class bivalvia | clams/scallops/mussels/oysters |
| what is crystalline structure | assists in digestion within stomach (looks like noodle and whips around food against gut wall) |
| characteristics of class cephalopoda | highly modified bodies adapted for high speed predation/tentacles(specialized foot)/ well developed nervous system/ camera-type eye/ shell is reduced or lost/ radula |
| what is a radula | beak-like jaw |
| what are some examples of class cephalopoda | octopus/squid/nautilus |
| what are some example of phylum annelid | earthworms/marine worms/leeches |
| characteristics of phylum annelid | marine/freshwater/damp soil, segmented coelomates/ well developed nervous system with BRAIN/ serial homology/ segments separated by septa/ closed circulatory system |
| what is serial homology | repetition of segments with internal organs within each segment |
| describe the closed circulatory system of annelids | dorsal and ventral blood vessels connected by lateral vessels within each segment |
| characteristics of class polychaeta | feather duster/ marine annelids/ bottom dwellers/ live in tubes/ paired appendages on each segment that function in locomotion and gas exchange |
| what does the parapodia aid in | gas exchange and locomotion |
| characteristics of class Oligochaeta | earthworms/ feed on organic material in soil/ hermaphrodites/ product of mating is cocoon released by clitellum |
| describe oligochaeta hermaphrodites | male/female in every individual but cannot self-fertilize |
| what is the clitellum | releases cocoon (housed female reproductive organs) that contains many eggs |
| characteristics of class hirundinea | leeches/ ectoparasites/ also free living/ often feed on blood/ secrete hirudin |
| what is hematophagy | act of feeding on blood |
| what is hirudin | thins blood to prevent clotting |
| what phylum are within clade ecdysozoans | nematoda/arthropoda |
| characteristics of clade ecdysozoans | animals that shed tough external layer (cuticle)/ exoskeleton built larger than the organism which will grow into and out of it, shed and make a new one (molting) |
| what is molting | act of shedding exoskeleton and making new one |
| what is a cuticle | tough external layer of ecdysozoans |
| characteristics of phylum nematoda | pseudocoelomates/ alimentary canal without circulatory system/ slender cylindrical non-segmented body/ tough cuticle/ cosmopolitan in distribution/ soil&aquatic habitats/ more parasitic to animals than plants |
| characteristics of phylum arthropoda | paired jointed appendages/ adult body divided into 2 or 3 regions/ complex mouth parts, sensory systems/ open circulatory system/ exoskeleton made of chiton/ good olfactory |
| examples of phylum artropoda | insects/spiders/custaceans |
| what are the 3 regions of arthropoda | head/thorax/abdomen |
| what is a cephalathorax | head and thorax combined |
| characteristics of sub-phylum trilobitomorpha | extinct group that dominated ocean 200-600 mya/ 3-lobed body |
| characteristics of sub-phylum cheliceraformes | 2 classes/ have chelicera (modified mouth parts)/ 2 body parts/ 6 paired appendages |
| what are chelicera | used for grinding and piercing (modified mouth parts) |
| what are the 2 body parts of cheliceraformes | cephalathorax and abdomen |
| what are some examples of cheliceraformes | horseshoe crab/ spiders/ scorpions/ mites/ ticks |
| what is an example of class merostomata | horseshoe crabs |
| characteristics of class merostomata | 5 paired legs/ 1 pair chelicera |
| what are examples of class arachnida | spider/scorpions |
| characteristics of class arachnida | chelicera and sensory pedipalps/ 4 pairs walking legs/ multiple simple and compound eyes |
| what is unique about spiders | chelicera have been modified into fangs with poison ducts that paralyze prey for later feeding |
| what are examples of sub-phylum myriapoda | centipedes/millipedes |
| characteristics of sub-phylum myriapoda | 3 distinct body regions (head,thorax,abdomen)/ 1st head appendages(antennae)/ 2nd head appendages(mandibles) |
| what are the antennae in myriapoda | 1st head appendages |
| what are the mandibles in myriapoda | 2nd head appendages |
| example of class chilopoda | centipedes |
| characteristics of class chilopoda | 1 pair walking legs per segment. carnivorous with fangs |
| example of class diplopoda | millipedes |
| characteristics of class diplopoda | 2 pairs walking legs per segment. herbivorous in moist habitats |
| example of sub phylum hexapoda | insects |
| characteristics of sub phylum hexapoda | 1 pair antennae/ 3 pair walking legs/ 2 pair wings on thorax (if present)/ trachial system for respiration |
| describe the trachial system of hexapoda | spiracles lead to series of branching tubes that enter and exit via spiracles on body |
| examples of sub-phylum crustacea | crabs/shrimp/lobsters |
| characteristics of sub-phylum crustacea | 2 pair antennae/ calcified exoskeleton/ crushing mouth parts/ highly modified bodies with segments often fused together |
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