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Cytology
| Question/term | Answer/ Definition |
|---|---|
| Histology | study of cellular structures of the body cells, tissues and organs at microscopic levels |
| biopsy | tissue from patient for diagnostic examination obtained by suction through the needle, scraping, endoscopy, swabbing and cutting of the needed section |
| autopsy | tissue from a dead body |
| cytological sample | liquid form |
| histological sample | solid form |
| Cytology | study of cells obtained from tissue or body secretion to identify disease. usually cancer detection "bumps and lumps" fast and cheap screens. examine effusion in body cavities and cerbospinal fluid analysis |
| cytological sampling techniques | exfoliative, abrasive, FNA - fine needle aspiration |
| biological specimens | Urine, Cerbospinal fluid (CSF), joint fluid, endoscopy specimen, sputum, semen, other body fluids |
| Exfoliative cytology | based on shedding of cells derived from the lining of an organ into a cavity eg, urine, vaginal smear, csf, sputum. collected by swab, syringe or spontaneous action |
| specimen procedure for urine | centrifuged, supernatant is poured out and deposit is smeared on clean dry slides and fixed immediately in ether for 15 min. wet smears are stained with PAPANICOLAUS method and mounted. air dried smears are stained with ROMANOWSKY stains |
| cerebral spinal , joint fluid and endoscopy procedure | for infectious pathogens, centrifuge, supernatant and smear on glass slide, fix in ether for 15 min. PAP or romanowksy stains |
| fine needle aspirates | derived from solid tissue, needle not necessary , every organ accessible, simple fast, safe and cost effective |
| abrasive cytology | ceells obtained directly form the surface of the target interest through scrapping, brushing or washing the deep lesion eg. cervical scraper, endoscopy |
| papanicolau stain | trichrome stain for cervical smears. Nuclei- blue/black Non-keratinised cytoplasm- green karatinised cytoplasm- pink RBC- orange |
| romanowsky stains | non-gynaecological smears, mainly haematological nuclei- blue/purple degenerated nuclei- pink cytoplasm - pink/blue RBC and eosinphils- pink/red/orange |
| cervical smears | cervix- cervical spatula endocervix- endocervial brush |
| factors for cervical cancer | sexual activity at early age, several sexual partners, genetics, smoking and pills |
| cervical screening | cells from squamo-columnar junction of the cervix(transition/transformation zone). microscopic examination |
| epidemiology | 12th most common cancer in womens, most common in females under 30, 1 in 134 women in uk, developing countries 8/10 diagnosed. |
| squamous epithelium | basal cells (large nuclei, little cytoplasm), parabasal cells, intermediate cells, superficial cells. |
| columnar epithelial | attached to basement membrane. narrow cytoplasm and nucleus positioned at the base of each cell. |
| smear report | CIN -cervical neoplasia CIN1 - mild dysplasia CIN2- moderate CIN 3 - severe CIN 4 - carcinoma in situ |
| liquid based cytology | brush used to obtain initial sample which is then aggressively rotated to suspend the cells. |
| cytospin | cell suspension spun to produce thin layer of cells evenly spread on glass slide. +reproducible, blood and mucus can be removed -scant samples may appear negative |
| clinical screening | human papilloma virus, blood and dna hybridisation +detected at early age - still under investigation |
| cell blocks | fluid is cytospun and suspended in gelatine pellet for histological routine +long term storage and serial section |
| PAPNET | record image digitally +easy storage for future reference -expensive |
| histochemistry | identifies chemical components in cell and tissue by using light, fluorescent, and EM. tissue structure and substance is coloured during chemical group and stain reaction. detects: -substrate, specific sites and chemical components within |
| positive control | ensures any material in test section is detected, use reacting material as similar to test material as possible |
| negative control | test specificity of the reaction and ensures there are no false positive. |
| PAS - periodic acid-schiff | stains : glycogen, epithelial mucins, muco&glyco protein. + outlines tissue structure, basement membrane and capsules -high backgoriund as its very sensitive & contains a lot of things, free to interpretation. |
| Acridine orange | - DNA amd RNA stain DNA - green RNA- orange/red |
| Feulgen Technique | - Dna specific red stain |
| Von kossa | demonstrate calcification in SILVER. shows deposit of calcium and calcium salts. tissue is subjected to silver nitrate solution and the silver loaded by replacing thecalcium reduced by light and visualised as strong silver |
| Alcian blue - copper phthalocyanin | cationic dye stains mast cells granules, goblet cell mucin |
| sudan black | stains large lipid droplets in type 1 muscle fibres |
| enzyme histochemistry | identifies tissue enzyme by their specific action on a substrate/reactant. enzyme activity must be protected using the fixation so the enzymes dont diffuse from original location |
| Acid phosphatase | GOMRI method- demonstration of alkali phosphates in microscopic section . formalin-fixed tissue is placed in sodium glycerophosphate and lead nitrates, reacts with ammonium sulphide, which produce black lead sulphite.detects hydrolytic enzymes in lysosome |
| immunochemistry | demonstrate ANTIGENS in cells and tissues by the use of labelled antibodies, as specific reagents ANTIGEN-ANTIBODY which is visualised by a marker such as fluorescent dye |
| Direct method | antigen directly binds to specific antibody(primary). fats result as it applies 1 conjugated intensity antibody. kidney & skin biopsy |
| indirect method | primary antibody is NOT labelled. 2ndary antibody (labelled) is used & raised against immunoglobulin of the species primary antibody is made in . |
| indirect method steps | 1. Primary antibody bings to antigen 2. AB-AG complex is bound by 2ndary antibody 3. PAP or ABC amplify stains 4. in presence of chromogen & substrate the enzyme is coloured at site of Ab- Ag complex |
| pathology | study of disease |
| etiology | cause of cell injury, internal or external factors, |
| enviromental factors of disease | hypoxia, ischemia, infection, nutrition deficiency, immunological reaction, physical and chemical agents |
| pathogenesis | study of how and what happend |
| lesion | changes in structure/ morphology associated with disease |
| types of lesion | gross- seen with naked eye microscopic ultrastructural |
| morphology | structural changes in organs/tissues due to disease |
| Rudolf Virchov | father pf celular pathology |
| george papanicalov | PAP smear, father of cytology |
| cellular pathology | study of a structural and functional abnormalities taking place in cells, tissues and organs |
| histological techniques | -fixation -dehydration -embedding -sectioning and mounting -staining -microscopic examination |
| fixation of tissue | tissue deprived of blood supply will begin to change |
| hypoxia/anoxia | cells die and give visible change in tissue. |
| autolysis | slef digestion through the enzymes released by lysosomes |
| putrfaction | growth of bacteria on dead tissue |
| affecting factors | pH, temperature, size and type of sample, method f preservation |
| importance of Fixation | 1. goes inside the tissue, quickly and evenly to ensure consistency 2. do NOT change volume/shape at any stage 3. inhibits autolysis and bacterial decay 4. cheap and fast |
| formaldehyde/formalin | for light microscopes. 4% [fixation]. pH buffered to 7. proteins are intact, natural colour is restored |
| glutaraldehyde | [2-6%], phosphate/sodium buffer, electron microscope, inactivates all enzymes, highly reactive - 90% in 2 h |
| alcohols | denature proteins&nucleic acids by replacing H2O with alcohol. changes chemical shape but preserves chemical reactivity. shinkage of tisue, good for cytology smears |
| oxidizing agents | good for lipid preservation, -highly dangerous, can lead to blindness, poor penetration |
| mercuric chloride | good nucleic and cytoplasmic staining, used with another fixative as it hardens the tissue . zenkers fluid |
| tissue prcoessing | 1. fixed tissue is transfered to dehydrating agents 2. in case of bone present is decalcified, romves Ca salts 3. dehydration with alcohols 4. clearing removes de hydrant agents with substances involved in embedding ( xylene, tolune, chloroform, |
| tissue processing from step 5 | 5. wax infusion remoes clearing agent and provide support . 2-4 baths in molten wax for few hours before embedding 6. embedding the tissue in supporting substance for same consistency EG parafin, plastic&resin |
| parafin | easier sectioning, long term storage, useful study mater |
| plastic and resin | harder than wax, thinner sections, special blades needed |
| sectioning | cut sections are flooded with warm water for removal of wrinkles , picked up with microscope glass and placed in oven for 15 min |
| frozen samples | +urgent results, retain chemical composition and properties - hard storage damage to tissue crystostat performance, temp -20- -30 |
| slow freezing | from few min- few h. crystals form and damage the sample deep freeze cabinet - crystat chamber |
| rapid freezing | few min, minimum damage liquid N2 (-198 degrees) |
| staining | contrast between chemicasl structures, allows study of structure. paraffin wax out of tissue for h2o soluble dyes to penetrate the section |
| progressive staining | dye applied until desired colour is reached - hard to control + simple |
| regressive staining | sections are foxed in solution for certain time and taken back through acid-alcohol solution that removes parts of stain +removes background stain |
| stains | stain of various cellular components routine- hematoxylin and eosin other- special stain for specific sites |
Created by:
purespirit
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