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Biology 2 Test 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Homeostasis | The ability of an organism to maintain a stable internal environment despite changes in the external environment. |
| Endotherms | Animal that maintains its own body temperature by using heat generated from its own metabolism; birds and mammals. |
| Ecotherms | Animal that lacks an internal mechanism that keeps its temperature within a narrow range; invertebrates, fishes, amphibians and non-avion reptiles. |
| Conduction | Transfer of internal energy by microscopic diffusion and collisions of particles or quasi-particles within a body due to temperature gradient. |
| Convection | The movement caused within a fluid by the tendency of hotter and therefore less dense material to rise and cooler, denser material to sink under the influence of gravity which consequently results in the transfer of heat. |
| Radiation | The emission of energy as electromagnetic waves or as subatomic particles, especially high energy particles that cause ionization |
| Evaporation | A type of vaporization of a liquid into a gaseous phase that is not saturated with the evaporating substance. |
| Thermoregulation | Control of an animals body temperature |
| How do animals do thermoregulation? | Metabolic heat production, insulation, circulatory adaptions: vasodilatation and vasoconstriction, countercurrent exchange, evaporated cooling, behavioral responses. |
| Vasodilation | The dilation of blood vessels- which increase blood pressure. |
| Vasoconstriction | The constriction of blood vessels- which increases blood pressure. |
| Countercurrent Exchange | Arrangement in which 2 adjacent currents flow in opposite directions and exchange materials or heat. |
| Osmoregulation | Control of an animals ion concentration |
| Osmoconformers | Marine animals which in contrast to osmoregulators, maintain the osmolarity of their body fluids. Such that it is always equal to the surrounding sea water. Osmoconformers decrease the net flux of water in and out via diffusion. |
| Osmoregulation | Active regulation of the osmotic pressure of an organisms fluids to maintain homeostasis of the organisms water content, it keeps the organisms fluids from becoming too diluted or too concentrated; most marine vertebrates, all freshwater species, all lan |
| What are the three types of nitrogenous waste? | Ammonia, Urea and Uric Acid |
| Ammonia | Toxic-dilute solution-simpilest byproduct of protein breakdown- aquatic vertebrates, most bony fishes, tadpole and salamanders. |
| Urea | Less Toxic-less dilution in water-more costly to produce-mammals, adult frogs, toads, turtles and I fishes (sharks and rays) |
| Uric Acid | Less toxic-relativiley insoluble in water-more costly to produce-insects, land tortoises, lizards and birds |
| The urinary system | Filters blood, eliminates nitrogenous waste and helps maintain ion concentration of fluids. |
| Kidneys | Major excretory organs in the urinary system. As kidneys cleanse blood a liquid waste called urine forms. |
| Ureter | The urine from each kidney drains into a ureter. Waves of smooth muscle contraction called peristalsis squeeze the fluid along 2 ureters and squirt into the urinary bladder. |
| Urinary bladder | A sack like muscular organ that collects urine. |
| Urethra | A tube that connects the bladder and outside of the body. |
| Renal medulla | Located in the inner portion of each kidney is the renal medulla which contain renal pyramids consist of blood vessels and elongated portions of tube like structures that collect filtrate. |
| Renal cortex | Kidneys outer surroundings consist of renal columns. |
| Nephrons | Functional unit of the kidneys entwined with a network of capillaries. |
| Glomerulus | An arteriole delivers blood to a glomerulus- a tuft of capillaries where blood is filtered into a nephron. |
| Peritubular capillaries | Snake around part of the nephron |
| Glomerular (Bowman's) capsule | Receives fluid from the glomerulus |
| Proximal convoluted tubule | Leads from the glomerular capsule to the hair pin shaped nephron loop (loop of henle) |
| Descending limb | The descending limb of the nephron loop dips into the renal medulla towards the kidneys center and the ascending limb to the distal convoluted tube in the cortex. |
| Collecting duct | Received fluids from several nephrons. |
| The chemical composition of urine reflects these processes: | Filtration, Reabsorption, Secretion and Excretion. |
| Filtration | Water and dissolved substances are filtered out of the blood at the glomerular capsule. |
| Reabsoprtion | Useful materials such as salts, water, glucose and amino acids return nephron to the blood. |
| Secretion | Toxic substances, drug residues, hydrogen ions (H+) and surplus ions are secreted into the nephron to be eliminated in urine. |
| Excretion | Finding and removing waste materials produced by the body. |
| Glomerulus | Similar to a coffee filter (only allows some substances to pass through) Allows water, urea, glucose, salts, amino acids and creatine to pass into the glomerular capsule. |
| Proximal Tubule | Reabsorption of H20, nutrients, NaCI and HCO3. Secretion of H+ ions, poisons and drugs. |
| Loop of Henle | Descending tube- reabsorption of H20. Ascending limb - reabsorption of NaCI. |
| Distal Tubule | Reabsorption of H20, NaCI, HCO3. Secretion of K+ and H+. |
| Collecting Duct | Reabsorption of NaCI, H20 |
| Antidiuretic Hormone | When we are dehydrated, osmoreceptors cells in the hypothalamus send impulses to the posterior pituitary gland to create this hormone. |
| Causes of Kidney Failure | Hypertension, diabetes, kidney infection, alcoholism, other drugs medicines |
| Dialysis | Lifesaving measure, expensive, inconvenient and time consuming, many patients seek transplants |
| What are two types of glands? | Exocrine and Endocrine |
| Exocrine | releases products (enzymes) into ducts. (sweat, tears, digestive juices) |
| What are two regulatory systems? | Nervous system and endocrine system. |
| Modes of cell-to-cell signaling (chemical regulation) | Autocrine, paracrine, endocrine- hormonal and neurohormonal, neural and pheromonal. |
| Nervous system | A network of billions of nerve cells linked together in a highly organized fashion to form a rapid control center for the body. |
| Functions of the nervous system | Sensation, Integration and Reaction. |
| Sensation | Monitors changes/events occurring in and outside the body. Such changes are known as stimuli and cells that monitor them are receptors. |
| Integration | The parallel processing and interpretation of sensory information to determine the appropriate response |
| Reaction | Motor Output. The activation of muscles of glands (typically via neurotransmitters (NTs). |
| Similarities between the endocrine system and the nervous system | They both monitor stimuli and react as to maintain homeostasis. |
| Difference between the endocrine and nervous system | The NS is a rapid, fast-acting system whose effects do not always persevere. The ES acts slower and its actions are usually much longer lasting. |
| Autocrine | Form of cell signaling in which a cell secretes a hormone or chemical messenger (called the autocrine agent) that binds to autocrine receptors on that same cell leading to changes in the cel. |
| Paracrine | A form of cell-cell communication in which a cell produces a signal to induce changes in nearby cells, altering the behavior and differentiation of those cells. |
| Endocrine | System refers to the collection of glands of an organism that secrete hormones directly into the circulatory system to be carried toward a distance target organ. |
| Neurohormone | Any group of specialized cells (neurosecretory cells) structurally typical of the nervous rather than the endocrine system. |
| Neural Stem cells | Cell originating in the central nervous system, neural cells have the potential to give rise to offspring cells that grow and differentiate into neurons and glial cells (non neuronal cells that insulate neurons and enhance the speed at which neurons send |
| Phermone | A substance secreted to the outside of the body and perceived (as by smell) by other individuals of the same species, releasing specific behavior in the participant. |
| Elements of the control system are: | Receptor (sensor), control center, effector. |
| Receptor (sensor) DETECTS STRESS | A protein molecule usually found inside or on the surface of the cell, that receives chemical signals from outside the cell. |
| The control center | Receives information from the sensor and sends a message to adjust stress |
| Effector | Receives messages from the control center and produces the response which reestablishes homeostasis. |
| Negative Feedback (inhibition) | Is an action that counters an existing condition. (When a room gets too hot the heater turns off, when its too cold the heater turns on) |
| Positive Feedback | Body reacts to change by amplifying it. Blood clotting and milk secretion. Positive feedback does not maintain homeostasis. |
| Set point | The level at which a variables psychological state (as body temperature or weight) tend to stabilize. |
| What types of regulation of hormonal release are there? | Hormonal regulation, neural regulation and humoral regulation |
| Endocrine System | Releases chemicals directly to bloodstream; NO DUCTS. Ex hormones |
| Endocrine Glands | Consists of cells that produce and secrete hormones into the bloodstream, which carries the secretions throughout the body. |
| Hormone | A biochemical that travels in the bloodstream and alters the metabolism of one or more cells. |
| Target cells | Cells that actually respond to the hormones, the endocrine system would be ineffective if hormones acted on every cell. |
| Neurosecretory cells | A type of neuron or nerve cell, whose function is to translate neural signals into chemical stimuli. |
| Epinephrine | Hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla; also can act as a neurotransmitter. (regulates metabolism) Produced by both nervous and endocrine system. |
| Fight or Flight Response | The response or reaction of an animal to a situation perceived as a threat to its survival, which involves psychological changes in the animals body through the actions of the sympathetic nervous system, priming the animal to fight, flight or stay. |
| Chemical classes of hormones | Amino acid derived and Steroids |
| Peptide hormones | Chains of a few several hundred amino acids, are water soluble. |
| Steroid hormones | The body synthesizes lipid soluble steroid hormones from cholesterol. |
| Hormone signaling involves 3 key events | Reception, signal transduction and response |
| Reception | A cell detects a signaling molecule from the outside of the cell. A signal is detected when the chemical signal (also known as a ligand) binds to a receptor protein on the surface of the cell or inside the cell. |
| Signal Transduction | When the signaling molecule binds the receptor it changes the receptor protein in some way. This change initiates the process of transduction. Signal transduction is usually a pathway of several steps. Each relay molecule in the signal transduction pathwa |
| Transduction | The signal triggers a specific cellular response |
| Signal amplification | The use of specific detection methodologies to directly increase the signal in proportion to the amount of target in the reaction. Examples include the use of branched DNA probes that contain a reporter group or enzyme amplification. |
| Response (cytoplasmic response and gene regulation) | The signals trigger a specific cellular response |
| Hormone receptors in the cell membrane | proteins, polypeptides, amines |
| Hormone receptors in the nucleus | Steroids |
| Diversity of target cell responses | Each hormone has several types of receptors, each cell type has only one type of receptor, therefore the same hormone can cause different responses in different cell types. |
| Endocrine organs | Kidney, mammary glands, uterus, most cells in body, thyroid, adrenal cortex, testes, ovaries, pain receptors in brain |
| Kidney | Promotes conservation of water. The hypothalamus tells the posterior pituitary to release hormones (Antudiuretic hormone (ADH) aka vasopressin PEPTIDE to the kidney. |
| Mammary glands and uterus | The hypothalamus tells the posterior pituitary to release oxytocin PEPTIDE to the mammary glands and uterus to stimulate smooth muscle contractions. |
| Most cells in body | Stimulates tissue growth. The hypothalamus tells the anterior pituitary to release growth hormones (GH) PROTEIN to most of the cells in the body. |
| Mammary glands | Stimulates milk secretion. The hypothalamus tells the anterior pituitary to release prolactin PROTEIN to the mammary glands. |
| Thyroid | Stimulates secretion of thyroid hormones. The hypothalamus tells the anterior pituitary to release Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) GLYCOPROTEIN to the thyroid. |
| Adrenal cortex | Stimulates secretion of glucocorticoid hormones. The hypothalamus tells the anterior pituitary to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) PEPTIDE to the adrenal cortex. |
| Testes and Ovaries | Stimulate secretion of sex hormone, stimulate oocyte development and ovulation in females and sperm production in males. The hypothalamus tells the anterior pituitary to release follicle stimulating hormone (FSL) and luteinizing hormone (LH) GLYCOPROTEIN |
| Pain receptors in brain | Relieve pain. The hypothalamus tells the anterior pituitary to release Endorphins PEPTIDE to the pain receptors in the brain to relieve pain. |
| 2 structures that over see endocrine control | hypothalamus and pituitary gland |
| Hypothalamus | Almond size, part of the forebrain. Links the nervous and endocrine systems by controlling pituitary secretions. |
| Pituitary gland | Pea sized structure attached to the stalk extending from the hypothalamus. Made up of 2 glands in one- anterior pituitary (towards the front) and the posterior pituitary (towards the back). |
| Posterior pituitary | Is a continuation of the hypothalamus. Does not synthesis hormones. Stores and releases 2 hormones that the hypothalamus produces. |
| Anterior pituitary | Hypothalamus controls by Secreting hormones that reach the anterior pituitary through a specialized system of blood vessels. |
| Posterior Pituitary | Stores and releases 2 hormones- Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) aka vasopressin and Oxytocin. |
| Anterior Pituitary | Produces and secretes 6 hormones. Growth hormone (GH), Prolactin, Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), Leteinizing hormone (LH) and endorphins. |
| Adrenal gland (ON TOP OF KIDNEYS) is made up of: | Adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla. |
| Adrenal medulla (INNER PORTION) | Release epinephrine and norepinephrine AMINE to the blood vessels. This raises blood pressure, constricts blood vessels and slows digestion. |
| Adrenal cortex (OUTER PORTION) | Releases Mineralocorticoids STEROID to the kidney to maintain blook volume and electrolyte balance. It also releases glucocorticoids STEROID to all of the tissues to increase glucose levels in blood and brain. |
| What is can save lives for allergic reaction victims? | Epinephrine shots |
| Adrena medulla- EPINEPHRINE AND NOREPINEPHINE | Help body respond to exercise, trauma and other stresses. Increases heart rate and blood pressure, dilate airways so breathing rate increases, increases metabolic rate, slows digestion. |
| Adrenal cortex- MINERALOCORTICOIDS AND GLUCOCORTICOIDS | Secretes steroid hormones and even a small amount of testosterone. Maintain blood volume, increase glucose synthesis, constrict blood vessels raising blood pressure, suppress immune system. |
| Gonads- Testes and Ovaries | Secrete steroid hormones that not only enable gametes to mature but also development of secondary sex characteristics. |
| Ovaries | Produce estrogen and progesteron STEROID to uterine lining, hypothalmus, pituitary and other tissues. Progesteron Regulates menstrual cycle and prepares body for pregnancy. Estrogen regulates menstrual cycle and secondary sex characteristics in females. |
| Testes | Produces testosterone STEROID to the sperm producing cells, hypothalamus, pituitary and other tissues. Promotes sperm development and maintains secondary sex characteristics in men. |
| Thyroid gland | Two lobed structure in the neck. Two hormones produced- THYROXINE AND TRIIODOTHYRONINE. Increase rate of metabolism in target cells. |
| Parathyroid glands | Are four small groups of cells embedded in the back of the thyroid gland. Increases calcium levels in blood tissue fluid by releasing calcium from bones and by enhancing calcium absorption at the digestive tract and kidneys. |
| Pancreas | Is an elongated gland about the size of a hand located beneath the stomach and attached to the small intestine. Clusters of cells called pancreatic islets secrete insulin and glucagon- two polypeptide hormones that regulate the body's use of nutrients. |
| Hypothalamus | Part of the brain dealing with emotions and homeostatic maintenance. Connects to the pituitary gland and is continuos with the posterior pituitary gland. |
| Posterior pituitary- neuroendocrine release of: | oxytocin PEPTIDE and ANTIDIUETIC HORMONE- peptide. |
| Anterior Pituitary- Releases all peptides | Thyroid stimulating hormone, Adrenocoricotropic hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, lutenizing hormone, prolactin, Growth hormone and endorphins |
| Thyroid | Thyroxin and triiodothyroxin (anime)- contain iodine, regulate metabolism, regulated development of body stuctures, levels regulated by hypothalamic/pituitary/thyroid axis. |
| Hyperthyroidism- Graves' Disease | weight loss, bulging eyes, overheating, sweating, high blood pressure, irritability |
| Hypothyroidusm | weight gain, lethargy, cold intolerance, Cretinism (IF DURING CHILDHOOD) -short stature, mental retardation and characteristic facial appearance |
| Hormones from Thyroid and parathyroid regulate calcium | Calcitonin PEPTIDE and PARATHYROID HORMONE peptide |
| Pancreatic hormones regulate blood glucose | Insulin PEPTIDE Glucagon PEPTIDE |
| Diabetes | Normal kidneys actively transport glucose from glomerular filitrate into the blood stream. In diabetes, extremely high blood glucose levels mean the kidneys cannot recapture all the glucose and soe ends up being excreted in the urine. Extra water is carri |
| Type I Diabetes | Auto Immune Disorder- immune system attacks beta cells. Patient iis insulin dependent. |
| Type II Diabetes | Pancreas is intact, insulin production is normal or high. Target cells under express the insulin receptors. Patient is non-insulin dependent. Associated with obesity. |
| Gestational Diabetes | Can occur during pregnancy. May cause overweight baby. |
| Hypoglycemia | Low blood sugar. Hyperactive beta cells over produce insulin. |
| Adrenal Medulla | Short-term stress response. Epinephrine and norepinephrine. Fight or flight response. Glycogen breakdown and release- increases blood glucose. |
| Adrenal Cortex | Long term stress response |
| Gonads | Produce gametes as well as sex hormones- estrogen, progestins, and androgens. All steroids. |
| Sex hormones | regulated by hypothalamic/pituitary/gonad axis. |
| Single protein can have a variety of different functions in different animals. Example Prolactin | -milk production, -suppression of ovulation, -nest building |
| Asexual reproduction | Budding, fission, fragmentation/regeneration. |
| Budding | Budding is a form of asexual reproduction in which a new organism develops from an outgrowth or bud on another one due to cell division at one particular site . |
| Fission | Splitting into 2 or more parts |
| Fragmentation | Breaking into small or separate parts |
| External fertilization | Happens outside of the body |
| Internal fertilization | Happens inside of a female body |
| Female reproductive- Gonads | Ovaries |
| Oviducts | Fillopian tibes |
| Endometrium | Cancer that develops in the uterus |
| Semen | 5% sperm, glandular secretions 95% seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral gland |
| • Outer ear | o Pinna o Ear canal |
| • Middle ear | o Ear drum (tympanic membrane) o Ossicles – malleus, incus, stapes |
| • Inner ear- vestibulocochlear apparatus | o Cochlea o Semicircular canals o Hair cells |
| • Eye | o Cornea o Iris o Lens o Retina – Rods – Cones • Optic nerve |
| #1-Discuss how the parathyroid is can balance the Calcium and amount of blood produced. | The parathyroid glands control calcium levels. The parathyroid glands are four small groups of cells located in the back of the thyroid gland. The parathyroid hormone (PTH) (peptide) is released by the parathyroid gland. PTH increases calcium levels in bl |
| 2- Discuss the differences between crystalloid and colloid fluids. | The administration of intravenous fluids is a very common medicine given to patients. Crystalloid solutions are much more common to use. Crystalloids are a solution of sterile water with added electrolytes come. Colloid fluids are very similar to crystall |
| #3 Discuss the role that the prostate gland plays in reproduction. | The prostate gland secretes an alkaline fluid that helps activate sperm. The prostate gland wraps around the urethra and adds a think, milky, alkaline fluid that helps the sperm swim. |
| Discuss the role that sodium Na+ and potassium play in the nervous system. | Nerve signals are transmitted via neurons. Neurons have potential energy (energy that can be put to work) known as the membrane potential. The inside of the ion is negatively charged compared to the outside of the ion. The membrane stores energy by keepin |
| Compare and contrast the difference between the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system? | The peripheral nervous system are the nerve cells outside of the central nervous system. The motor pathways that send information from the central nervous system to muscles and glands that make up the peripheral nervous system are: the somatic nervous sys |
| 3. Discuss the major function of the occipital lobe of the human brain. | The brain requires a large and constant amount of energy to oversee organ systems and enable the “mind” to work. Each part of the brain has a designated function that it is in control of. Similar to an assembly line. If each stop has a specific job to do |
| 4. List and describe the different types of muscular tissue: | The three main types of muscular tissue are connective, muscle and nervous tissue. Connective tissue is explained in its name because it is what helps connect everything throughout the body. It makes up bone, cartilage, marrow, etc. Muscle tissue connects |
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