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Bio. EXAM 3--Animals
Animal tissues, physiology, respiration, digestion
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Anatomy | biological form |
| physiology | biological function |
| tissues | groups of cells with a similar appearance and a common function |
| organs | different types of tissues that are further organized into functional units |
| organ system | a group of organs that work together to provide an additional level of organization and coordination |
| Epithelial tissue | Sheets of closely packed cells, covers the outside of the body and lines organs and cavities. functions as a barrier against mechanical injury, pathogens, and fluid loss. Also forms active interfaces with the environment. |
| Nervous tissue | Functions in the receipt, processing, and transmission of information |
| 2 kinds of cells in the nervous tissue | neurons and glia |
| Neurons | basic units of the nervous system. Receive nerve impulses rom the other neurons via its cell body and dendrites; transmit impulses to neurons, muscles, or other cells via axons. |
| Glia (glial cells) | support cells; help nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons; in some cases modulate neuron function. |
| Connective tissue | cells scattered throughout an extracellular matrix, often consisting of a web of fibers embedded in a liquid, jellylike, or solid foundation. |
| Forms/types of connective tissues in vertebrates | LOOSE--holds skin & other organs in place; FIBROUS--tendons & ligaments; ADIPOSE--stores fat; BLOOD--cells/fragments in plasma; CARTILAGE--provides flexible support in spine & elsewhere; BONE--hard mineral of Ca, Mg, & PO4 ions in collagen matrix |
| 2 kinds of cells in the connective tissue | FIBROBLASTS--secrete fiber proteins; MACROPHAGES--engulf foreign particles and cell debris |
| 11 organ systems in mammals | digestive, circulatory, respiratory, immune/lymphatic, excretory, endocrine, reproductive, nervous, integumentary, skeletal, muscular |
| Muscle tissue | consists of filaments containing the proteins myosin and actin, which together enable muscles to contract |
| 3 types of muscle tissue | SKELETAL (STRIATED)--attached to bone by tendons, responsible for voluntary movement; SMOOTH--spindle-shaped cells, found in walls of many internal organs, responsible for involuntary activities; CARDIAC--striated, forms contractile wall of heart |
| Faced with environmental fluctuations, animals manage their internal environment by either ______ or _______. | regulating, conforming |
| Regulator | uses internal mechanisms to control internal change in the face of external fluctuation |
| Conformer | allows its internal condition to change in accordance with external changes |
| Homeostasis | "steady state"; refers to the maintenance of internal balance (ex: body temperature, blood glucose, blood pH) |
| set point | a particular value around which an animal maintains homeostasis |
| response | a physiological activity that helps return the variable to the set point |
| sensor | receptor |
| negative feedback | a control mechanism that reduces or damps the stimulus; homeostasis in animals relies largely on it |
| thermoregulation | the process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a normal range |
| How do body temperatures below or above an animal's normal range affect that animal's physiological processes? | 1. Can reduce efficiency of enzymatic reactions. 2. Can alter the fluidity of cellular membranes. 3. Can affect other temperature-sensitive biochemical processes, potentially with fatal results. |
| Endothermic | warmed mostly by heat generated by metabolism |
| Ectothermic | gain most of their heat from external sources |
| Examples of endothermic animals | mammals, birds |
| Examples of ectothermic animals | Amphibians, many fishes and nonavian reptiles, most invertebrates |
| 4 physical processes by which an organism exchanges heat with its environment | RADIATN: emissn of elecmag wvs by objts>abs0 EVAPORATN: remvl of heat fr srface of liqd losing some molecls as gas CONVECTN: heat transfr by mvt of air/liqd past a surface CONDUCTN: dirct trnsfr of therml motn btw molecls of objts in contact w/eo |
| Edicaran biota | members of a group of soft-bodied multicellular eukaryotes; their fossils were first discovered in the Ediacara Hills of Australia; some may be sponges, cnidarians, and molluscs |
| Phylum Porifera | sponges |
| Filter feeders | animals that filter out food particles suspended in water as they draw it through their body |
| Sponges | phylum porifera; said to be basal animals; don't have true tissues |
| Choanocytes | "Collar cells" found in sponges; engulf bacteria and other food particles by phagocytosis |
| Amoebocytes | mobile cells found in sponges; use pseudopodia; take up food from the surrounding water and from choanocytes, digest it, and carry nutrients to other cells |
| Eumetazoans | "true animals"; have tissues |
| Phylum Cnidaria | Eumetazoan; consists of a sac with a central digestive compartment (gastrovascular cavity) with a single opening; carnivores that often use tentacles in a ring around its mouth to capture prey |
| Examples of cnidarians | HYDROZOA: colonial polyps; SCYPHOZOA: jellyfish; ANTHOZOA: sea anemones |
| Cambrian explosion | a hypothesized time period 535-525 million years ago in which large forms of many present-day animal phyla suddenly appear |
| Bilaterians | a clade of animals whose members have a complete digestive tract and a two-sided (bilaterally symmetric) form |
| body plan | a particular set of morphological and developmental traits integrated into a functional whole |
| dorsal | top |
| ventral | bottom |
| anterior | front |
| posterior | back |
| sessile | nonmobile; living attached to a substrate |
| motile | mobile |
| ectoderm | the germ layer covering the surface of the embryo; gives rise to the outer covering of the animal, in some species to the central nervous system |
| endoderm | the innermost germ layer; gives rise to the lining of the digestive tract/cavity and organs such as the liver and the lungs of vertebrates |
| mesoderm | a third germ layer, found in all bilaterally symmetric animals; fills much of the space between the ectoderm and endoderm; forms muscles and most other organs between the digestive trace and outer covering (skin) |
| body cavity | a fluid- or air-filled space located between the digestive tract and the outer body wall; also called the coelem |
| Most animal phyla belong to the clade ______. | Bilateria |
| Most animals are ________. | invertebrates |
| Which animal phylum contains vertebrates? | Phylum Chordata |
| Bilaterian invertebrates account for ___% of known animal species. | 95 |
| The three major bilaterian clades | Lophotrochozoa, Ecdysozoa, Deuterostomia |
| How many known animal species are there? | 1.3 million |
| Groups within Lophotrochozoa | ECTOPROCTA--live as sessile colonies, tentacles trap food particles from the surrounding water; MOLLUSCA--snails, clams, squids, octopus; ANNELIDA--segmented worms--primarily marine and freshwater species, also earthworms |
| Groups within Ecdysozoa | NEMATODA--roundworms; ARTHROPODA--vast majority of all animal species, have a segmented exoskeleton and jointed appendages--insects, millipedes, crabs, arachnids |
| Groups within Deuterostomia | HEMICHORDATA--have gill slits and a dorsal nerve cord--acorn worms; ECHINODEMATA--marine animals that are bilaterally symmetric as larvae but not as adults, move and feed using tube feet--sea stars, sea urchins, sand dollars |
| The 4 key characters of chordates | 1. A notocord; 2. A dorsal, hollow nerve cord; 3. Pharyngeal slits (or clefts); 4. A muscular post-anal tail |
| Notochord | flexible rod that provides skeletal support |
| Pharyngeal slits | In adults, structures that function in filter feeding, as gills, or as part of the head |
| Vertebrates not only have a backbone, they also have ______________. | a well-defined head with a brain, eyes and other sensory organs, and a skull |
| gnathosomes | jawed vertebrates |
| The 2 lineages of jawless vertebrates that survive today | Hagfishes and lampreys |
| Condrichthyans (Chondrichthes) | have a skeleton composed primarily of cartilage. Ex: sharks, rays, ratfishes |
| Ray-finned fishes | have bony rays that support their fins |
| Osteichthyans | have an ossified (bony) skeleton; also have lungs or lung derivatves |
| 2 major groups of osteichthyans | ray-finned fishes, lobe-fins |
| Lobe-fins | have rod-shaped bones surrounded by a thick layer of muscle in their pectoral and pelvic fins |
| tetrapods (Tetrapoda) | vertebrates with limbs and digits. Ex: Amphibians, reptiles, mammals |
| Extant groups of lobe-fins | Coelacanths, lungfishes, tetrapods |
| Dipnoi | Lungfish. Have both gills and lungs and can gulp air into their lungs. |
| Myxini | Hagfishes. Seafloor scavengers, secrete slime. |
| Petromyzontida | Lampreys. Parasites that use their mouth and tongue to bore a hole in the side of a fish and feed on the blood and other tissues of its host. |
| Actinoptergii | Ray-finned fishes. Ex: tropical lionfish |
| Actinista | Coelocanths. Large Indian Ocean fish thought to be extinct until its rediscovery in 1938. |
| When vertebrates colonized land, according to evolutionists | 365 million years ago |
| Cuticle | an exoskeleton constructed from layers of protein and the polysaccharide chitin (like the shell of a crab or lobster) |
| Functions of the exoskeleton | protects the animal, provides points of attachment for muscles, helps prevent desiccation (for land animals), provides support |
| Animal nutrition | food being taken in, taken apart, and taken up |
| 3 things an animal's diet must supply | 1. chemical energy for cellular processes; 2. organic building blocks for macromolecules; 3. essential nutrients. |
| Essential nutrients | preassembled organic molecules and minerals that an animal cannot assemble from simpler organic precursors; are obtained from the animal's diet |
| Examples of essential nutrients | essential fatty acids, amino acids, vitamins, minerals |
| Essential fatty acids (description) | animals cannot synthesize these (but plants can); animals convert fatty acids to a variety of cellular components, including membrane phospholipids, signaling molecules, and storage fats |
| Essential amino acids | serve as building blocks for biosynthesis; animals use about 20 to synthesize proteins; some are produced by animals, while others must be obtained through diet |
| Vitamins | organic molecules that are required in the diet in very small amounts |
| How many vitamins have been identified for humans? | 13 |
| minerals (dietary minerals) | inorganic nutrients, such as iron and sulfur, that are usually required in small amounts |
| the 4 stages of food processing | ingestion, digestion, absorbtion, elimination |
| ingestion | the act of eating or feeding |
| digestion | food is broken down into molecules small enough for the body to absorb; includes mechanical digestion (like chewing) and chemical digestion |
| absorption | the animal's cells take up small molecules such as amino acids and simple sugars |
| elimination | undigested material passes out of the digestive system |
| the 4 main feeding mechanisms of animals | FILTER FEEDING: use of filtration mechanism to strain small organisms or food particles from the surroundings. SUBSTRATE": living in/on the food source. FLUID": sucking nutrient-rich fluid from a living host. BULK": eating relatively large pieces of food. |
| Intracellular digestion | a cell engulfs solid food by phagocytosis and digests it inside food vacuoles; sponges digest by this mechanism |
| extracellular digestion | the breakdown of food in compartments that are continuous with the outside of the animal's body; occurs in most animal species |
| gastrovascular cavity | a digestive compartment with a single opening; functions in digestion as well as in the distribution of nutrients throughout the body |
| alimentary canal | also called a complete digestive tract; a digestive tube extending between two openings; food moves in a single direction; most animals have an alimentary canal |
| peristalis | alternating waves of contraction and relaxation in the smooth muscles lining the alimentary canal, pushing food along the canal during food processing/digestion |
| 2 main functions of saliva | initiates chemical digestion, protects the oral cavity |
| amylase | an enzyme found in saliva that hydrolyzes starch and glycogen into smaller polysaccharides and the disaccharide maltose |
| purpose of salivary mucous | protects the lining of the mouth from abrasion and lubricates food for easier swallowing |
| bolus | a ball of food shaped in the mouth and swallowed for further processing and digestion |
| pharynx | throat region; opens to two passageways: esophagus and trachea |
| functions of the stomach | stores food and begins digestion of proteins |
| gastric juice | a digestive fluid secreted by the stomach and churned with food inside the stomach |
| chyme | a mixture of ingested food and digestive juice formed inside the stomach |
| the 2 components of gastric juice that carry out digestion | Hydrochloric acid and pepsin |
| Where does most of the enzymatic hydrolysis of macromolecules from food occur? | in the small intestine |
| How long is the small intestine? | approximately 6 meters (20 ft) |
| duodenum | the first 25 cm or so of the small intestine, in which chyme from the stomach mixes with digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and from gland cells on the intestinal wall |
| What does the pancreas do? | aids chemical digestion by producing an alkaline solution rich in bicarbonate as well as several enzymes |
| Name the 4 accessory glands (or groups of glands) of the human digestive system. | salivary glands, gallbladder, liver, pancreas |
| Where is bile made? Where is it stored? | Bile is made in the liver and stored in the gallbladder. |
| Besides aiding digestion, how else is bile helpful to the body? | As the liver destroys red blood cells that are no longer fully functional, it incorporates some pigments that are by-products of RBC disassembly into the production of bile. The pigments in the bile are then eliminated from the body with the feces. |
| Villi and microvilli | Villi are finger-like projections on the inside lining of the small intestine. Microvilli are microscopic finger-like projections found on the villi. Both absorb nutrients from food as it passes through the small intestine. |
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