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Biology EXAM 2
Fungi, plant form and function
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Saprobes | fungi that decompose dead plants and animals |
| Parasites | pathogenic to living plants and animals |
| Give 2 examples of mutualistic symbiants. | Mycorrhizae, lichens |
| Unicellular fungi | yeasts |
| Mycelia | mass of hyphae |
| Hyphae | multicellular fungal filaments that grow in or around plant roots, forming a symbiotic relationship |
| Haustoria | |
| 2 kinds of hyphae | septate and non-septate (coenocytic) |
| Budding | fungi reproduction--nuclei divide, asymmetric division of cytoplasm |
| Prefix "kary-" | nucleus |
| Reproductive life cycle of fungi | zygotic meiosis |
| 4 steps of zygotic meiosis | 1. Plasmogamy: fusion of cytoplasm 2. Heterokaryon: 2 types of haploid nuclei in a cell 3. karyogamy: fusion of cell nuclei 4. production of spores |
| Name the 5 groups of fungi. | Chytrids, zygomycetes, glomeromycetes, ascomycetes, basidiomycedes |
| Lichen | A symbiotic relationship between fungi (a mass of fungal hyphae) and a photosynthetic member (green alga or cyanobacteria). The alga/cyanobacteria is in an inner layer below the fungal surface. |
| How do the components of lichen benefit each other? | Green algae provide fixed carbon. Cyanobacteria provide fixed carbon and nitrogen. Fungus provides a physical environment, facilitates gas exchange, aids in retention of water and minerals, and secretes acids. |
| Name the 2 main plant systems. | 1. shoot system 2. root system |
| Where can you find the youngest parts of a 3-year-old tree? | Primary growth--at the tips (apical meristems) Secondary growth--the tissues adjacent to (directly inside) the vascular cambium |
| Xylem | Conduct water and minerals up the length of a plant |
| Phloem | Conduct photosynthetic products (sugars) down to the roots and throughout the whole plant |
| Wood | secondary xylem |
| Bark | All tissues external to the vascular cambium (ie the secondary phloem and the periderm) |
| Layers of a tree trunk, from center | 1. Heartwood (secondary xylem) 2. Sapwood (secondary xylem) 3. Vascular cambium 4. Secondary phloem (bark) 5. Periderm (bark) --cork cambrium --phelloderm --cork |
| Lenticels | Small opening/breaks in bark that facilitate gas exchange |
| Girdling | Stripping away the bark of a tree in a ring all the way around. Destroys phloem, kills the tree. |
| What gas do roots need? | O2 |
| What gas do roots put off? | CO2 |
| Plasmodesmata | a small break/connection between plant cell walls so that the cells' cytoplasm is connected |
| 2 kinds of nutrition transport in plants | passive transport and active transport |
| 3 types of short-distance transport in plants | 1. Apoplastic route--through/inside the cell walls 2. Symplastic route--via plasmodesma through the cytoplasm 3. Transmembrane route--crosses cell membranes multiple times |
| Osmosis | diffusion of water down its own concentration gradient across a semi-permeable membrane --water moves from a region of low solute concentration to a region of high solute concentration --always passive |
| Water potential | measure of the potential energy of water |
| Suberin | waxy barrier to apoplastic movement |
| In animal cells, water potential in the cell ________ that outside the cell. | equals |
| In plant cells, water potential in the cell ________ that outside the cell. | is less than |
| a "selective sentry" | endodermis |
| 2 forces that facilitate ascent of water and minerals up xylem | 1. root pressure (push) 2. Cohesion-tension hypothesis (pull) |
| Important mineral for opening and closing of the stomatal apparatus | potassium |
| Explain how the cohesion-tension hypothesis explains the pulling force of water upward through a plant's xylem. | Relies on transpiration through stoma. Tension develops at air-water interface (inside spongy mesophyll). Transmission of pull force by cohesion and adhesion. H2O is brought to leaf mesophyll veins. Plant controls evaporation by opening/closing stomata. |
| How do stomata open and close? | To open--guard cells swell. To close--guard cells shrink. |
| Environmental factors that affect transpirtation | light, amount of CO2, temperature, water status, circadian rhythms |
| Organic nutrients are translocated through the phloem from ______ to _______. | Source, sink |
| main phloem sugar | sucrose |
| Components of topsoil | 1. Particulates from rock--sand, silt, and clay 2. Humus--decaying organic material, nitrogen seeps out 3. Living organisms--bacteria, archaea, fungi, cyanobacteria, protists, inverts (esp. nematode worms) 4. Air spaces |
| Nitrogen fixation | Conversion of N2 (atmospheric nitrogen) to NH3 (ammonia). Only bacteria can do this--must break triple bond of N2. |
| Root nodules | a symbiotic "infection" of bacteria being housed in plant roots |
| Benefits of root nodules to both species | Bacteria provides NH4+ to plant. Plant provides CHO to bacteria. |
| Endomyccorhizae | Arbuscular; fungal hyphae press inward on plant cells (without breaking cell wall)--like fingers pressing in on a water balloon |
| Ectomyccorhizae | fungal hyphae grow between plant cells |
| Name 2 alternative plant nutrition categories. | 1. Epiphytes--grow on other plants for support without harming the host. 2. Parasites |
| What is the difference between the nutritional modes of fungi and animals? | Fungi absorb nutrition, animals consume it. |
| Does the fungal life cycle include alteration of generations? | No. |
| Compare the haploid and diploid states of fungi, animals, and plants. | |
| What feature of the chytrids supports the hypothesis that they represent an early diverging (basal) fungal lineage? | flagella |
| What are the ecological roles of fungi? | Decomposition of dead organic material |
| How do lichens reporduce? | by breaking off |
| What is the role of mychorrhizae in the ecosystems in which they live? | The fungi and plants mutually benefit each other, the plant providing sugars and water and the fungus providing easier access to soil minerals. |
| Heterotrophy | getting food from outside sources rather than photosynthesizing; fungi are heterotrophs |
| Mycelium/mycelia | network of hyphae |
| chitin | |
| septum/septa | |
| coenocytic | non-septate (in hyphae) |
| arbuscles | treelike growths of hyphae that |
| asexual spores | |
| sexual spores | |
| dikaryotic | having 2 nuclei (ie before nuclei of + and - fungal cells fuse) |
| molds | |
| unikonta | |
| opisthokonts | |
| saccharomyces | |
| candida | |
| penicillium | |
| chytrids | basal group of fungi, live in wet environments, cell wall with chitin, cells are flagellated unlike all other fungal cells |
| zygomycetes | have non-septate hyphae; reproduce by zygosporangium (sexual spores); an example is black bread mold |
| zygosporangium | the sexual spores of zygomycetes |
| rhizopus | |
| pilobolus | |
| sporangium | |
| glomeromycetes | a grouping of fungi with non-septate hyphae and arbuscular endomycorrhizae (hyphae push into cell walls but don't burst through; look like little trees) |
| ascomycetes | a grouping of fungi with septate hyphae and complex sexual structures that include ascocarp (fruiting bodies like mushrooms) |
| ascocarp | fungal fruiting body, ie mushroom |
| conidia | asexual fungal spores |
| basidiomycetes | Fung. gp w/septate hyphae & cmplx sexual struct; some ectomyccorhizae. Reprodctn: +/- hyphae meet plasmogamy dikaryotic septate hyphae (heterokaryon--2 unfused nuclei in cell) basidiocarp w/gills karyogamy in basidia meiosis basidiospore formation |
| basidiocarp | |
| basidium/basidia | |
| basidiospore | haploid spore of basidiomycedes fungi |
| gill | |
| mutualist | |
| soredia | |
| Roots and stems grow indeterminately but leaves do not; how does this benefit the plant? | Once leaves are mature, they are able to photosynthesize and provide nutrition for the plant rather than continuing to be a consumer through growth. |
| Characterize the role of each of the three tissue systems in a plant. | |
| Which cells in the plant body are dead yet fully functional? | secondary xylem (cell walls) still support the plant |
| What is the difference between primary and secondary growth? | Primary--growth of roots and shoots in length. Secondary--growth of width/girth in woody plants. |
| Where are the oldest and the youngest parts of a plant located? Answer for an herbaceous plant and a woody plant. | Oldest: --for both: lowest and innermost parts Youngest: --for herbaceous: tips of roots and shoots (apical meristems) --for woody: tips of roots and shoots (apical meristems) and in the wood directly inside the vascular cambium |
| How is the continuous ring of vascular cambium in the shoot formed from a ring of individual vascular bundles? | |
| How is the complete ring of cork cambium formed during secondary growth? | |
| What is the difference between early and late wood? | Early wood--wider growth ring from more rain late wood--narrower growth ring from less rain |
| Would you expect a tropical tree to have distinct growth rings? Why or why not? | Yes, because tropical climate varies between times of abundant rain (rainy season) and little rain (dry season), even if temperature variation is not as drastic as in temperate climates. |
| Do the locations of the branch points of a tree change as the plant grows taller? | |
| Stomata and lenticels are both involved in gas exchange. Why do stomata need to be able to close, but lenticels do not? | |
| Why does girdling usually kill a tree? | Girdling destroys the complete ring of phloem around the tree, making the tree unable to transport sugars and nutrients to its various parts. |
| Sessile | |
| indeterminate growth | plants continue growing throughout their lifetimes, unlike animals |
| stem or shoot | the above ground part of the two plant systems |
| root | the underground part of the two plant systems |
| taproot | main root, grows straight down and anchors plant |
| fibrous root | mass of roots that have no distinct taproot |
| adventitious root | |
| lateral root | grows out from the taproot |
| root hair | |
| root cap | |
| leaf | blade; the main photosynthetic organ of a plant; produces sucrose that is then transported throughout the plant |
| upper epidermis | |
| lower epidermis | |
| palisade | |
| spongy layer | |
| blade | leaf |
| petiole | attaches leaf to stem or branch |
| axillary bud | usually dormant bud at the base of branches; comes out of dormancy to grow if the apical bud is removed |
| terminal bud | bud found at the end of a plant's lateral shoots |
| parenchyma | |
| collenchyma | |
| sclerenchyma | |
| chlorenchyma | |
| epidermal cell | |
| guard cell | controls the opening and closing of stomata, controling gas exchange and evaporation; 2 per stoma |
| sieve cells | |
| sieve tube elements | |
| sieve plate | |
| companion cells | |
| tracheids | |
| vessels | transport tubes within a plant--xylem and phloem |
| fibers | |
| primary cell wall | |
| secondary cell wall | |
| dermal tissue | |
| vascular tissue | |
| vascular bundle | |
| ground tissue | |
| cortex | |
| pith | |
| apical meristem | undifferentiated plant stem cells found at the topmost point of a plant; the main source of new growth for a plant |
| lateral meristem | undifferentiated plant stem cells found at the tips of the lateral shoots/branches; can become dominant if the apical meristem is removed |
| vascular cambium | thin layer between the xylem and the bark |
| cork cambium | a layer found just inside the outermost layer of cork |
| periderm | cork cambium, cork, and phelloderm |
| phelloderm | part of the periderm |
| stele | |
| pericycle | |
| endodermis | |
| cuticle | waxy external plant substance that prevents the evaporation of too much water |
| primary and secondary xylem | primary xylem--transport water from the roots to the shoots secondary xylem--are no longer used for transport and become wood |
| primary and secondary phloem | Primary phloem--actively used for transport of sucrose from the leaves around the entirety of the plant secondary phloem--die and are shed off the outside of the tree, do not become permanent like wood |
| heartwood | dark wood (secondary xylem) in the center of a tree trunk, no longer living/transporting water |
| sapwood | lighter wood (secondary xylem) around the heartwood but inside the vascular cambium, still living/transporting water |
| early wood | first part of a growth ring, from the spring and summer when water and nutrients are plentiful, wider than late wood |
| late wood | second part of a growth ring, from the fall and winter when water and nutrients are scarce, narrower than early wood |
| growth ring | a ring inside a tree trunk that represents the tree's circumfrential growth for the year; includes early and late wood |
| What is the difference between short distance and long distance transport in plants? | Short distance transport is at a cellular level--minerals & water traveling through or around cell walls & membranes. Long distance transport relies on plant's vesicles (xylem & phloem) to move minerals, water, & sugars around the entirety of the plant. |
| What is the difference between passive and active membrane transport? Give an example of each relative to the plant cell. | Passive transport relies on osmosis, the movement of water from an area of high water potential to an area of lower water potential, and does not require any effort by the plant. |
| What is the difference between facilitated diffusion and simple diffusion through a membrane? Give an example of each relative to the plant cell. | |
| How is the proton (pH) gradient across the plant cell membrane used to its own benefit? | |
| How would an aquaporin deficiency affect a plant cell's ability to adjust to new osmotic conditions (changes in the solute concentration in the external environment)? | |
| How would the long-distance transport of water be affected if vessel elements and tracheids were alive at maturity? | |
| How does the Casparian strip turn the endodermis into a sentry for the enclosed stele? | |
| How does root pressure arise and what is the mechanism that drives it? | |
| What is meant by transpirational pull? | |
| Given the very high tensions sustained by vessels and tracheids during the movement of xylem sap up a tree, how do you think these conducting elements would fare if they had thin primary cell walls? | The cell walls would rupture under high pressure, with the result that the xylem sap and the water it contains would not be able to be conducted up the tree, and the tree would die (if it was even able to grow into a tree in the first place). |
| Explain the observation that when zinnia flowers are cut at dawn, a small drop of fluid collects a the surface of the stump, but if you cut the flowers at noon, no drop develops. | |
| If you add dye to the water in which a cut off celery stalk (giant petiole) is placed, the dye moves into the celery and colors the leaves. What might you expect if a celery plant with intact roots were placed in water with dye added, and why? | |
| What are the stimuli that regulate the opening and closing of stomata? | Potassium levels, temperature, rainy/dry weather, circadian rhythms, amount of CO2 |
| Compare and contrast the driving force that moves xylem sap and the driving force that moves phloem sap. | Xylem sap--largely passive; water is pulled up from the roots as water in the leaves evaporates/transpirates. |
| Identify plant organs that are sugar sources, organs that are sugar sinks, and organs that can be either. Explain. | Sources--leaves (via photosynthesis) Sinks--roots, flowers, primary and secondary growth Both--leaves (photosynthesize but also require nutrition) |
| Why is it that animal cells must be surrounded by a solution with the same solute potential as that of the intracellular fluid? Think of a red blood cell and the plasma in which it floats. | Animal cells do not have cell walls, so a higher pressure within the cell would result in rupture, while a lower pressure in the cell would result in withering/being crushed. |
| A plant cell has a solute potential of -0.20 MPa, and it is placed in a solution with a water potential of 0 MPa. Will osmosis take place, and if so, which direction? Will a turgor pressure develop, and if so, what is its magnitude? | 1. Yes. Water will flow into the cell until equilibrium is reached. 2. Yes. -0.10 MPa. |
| A plant cell at equilibrium in pure water has a water potential of 0 MPa. If it is transferred to a solution with a water potential of -0.30 MPa, will osmosis take place, and if so, in which direction? Ultimately, what will happen to the plant cell? | Yes. Water will flow out of the cell into the solution until equilibrium is reached. Ultimately, the cell wall may swell a bit, but the cell will not be harmed. |
| passive transport | |
| diffusion | |
| transport proteins | |
| facilitated diffusion | |
| active transport | |
| membrane potential | |
| cotransport | |
| secondary active transport | |
| proton pump | |
| bulk flow | High water pressure --> Low water pressure |
| water potential | measure of the potential energy of water (symbol = psi) Solute potential + pressure potential = water potential |
| solute potential | symbol = psi s |
| pressure potential | symbol = psi p |
| water potential gradient | |
| aquaporins | |
| flaccid plant cell | inside of cell has less pressure than outside; cell wall can bend slightly but is too firm to be collapsed; cell's cytoplasm begins to peel away from the inside of the cell wall |
| plasmolysis | |
| turgor pressure | |
| turgid | firm, hard, has pressure pushing outward |
| transmembrane pathway | |
| endodermis | a "selective sentry" |
| Casparian strip | |
| xylem sap | water and nutrients being brought up from the roots |
| root pressure | |
| guttation | |
| Cohesion-tension hypothesis | A proposed idea about how bulk flow of water and nutrients are moved upward inside a tree's xylem; relies on transpiration of water from leaves' stomata |
| xerophytes | |
| phloem sap | sugary nutrition produced by photosynthesis in the leaves; moves downward to the roots and around to other parts of the plant through the phloem |
| Sugar source | producer of sugar/sucrose--eg, leaves |
| Sugar sink | consumer of sugar/sucrose--eg, roots |
| pressure flow mechanism | |
| Some lawnmowers collect clippings for easy disposal and to prevent clumps from inhibiting photosynthesis. What is a possible drawback of this practice with respect to plant nutrition? | The grass cuttings would be a source of organic nutrition as they decompose, providing ready nutrition for the growing grass. |
| How would adding clay to loamy soil affect the soil's capacity to exchange cations and retain water? | Adding clay would make the loamy soil retain more water. |
| Explain the effect of pH on the accessibility of cations in acidic soil and alkaline soil. | |
| Why is organic fertilizer better for the soil and environment than synthetic fertilizer? | Organic fertilizer, being derived from plant and soil based source, is made of the very same nutrients and molecules as the soil (and subsequently plants) it is added to. |
| How is the statement "plants are nourished mostly by air" supported by the list of micronutrients and macronutrients (Table 37.1)? | Plant nourishment comes from CO2, O2; N2 plays an important role. All these are found in the air. |
| Are some essential elements more important than others? Explain. | Some are more important than others, though all must be present for the plant to complete its entire life cycle from germination to seed production. The most important essential elements are O2, CO2, N2, C, |
| Identify the macronutrients and name a function for each. | C-- H-- O-- N-- P-- K-- Ca-- Mg-- S-- |
| How do soil bacteria and mycorrhizae contribute to plant nutrition? | Both form mutually beneficial symbiotic relationships with plant roots. Bacteria can become housed in roots, becoming root nodules; bacteria gain protection, and plants gain . In mycorrhizae, plants gain additional access to nutrients, while the fungi |
| What is the importance of leghemoglobin? | Is found in root nodules (giving their pinkish color). |
| The structure & function of leghemoglobin is very similar to that of myoglobin (oxygen-storing protein in mammalian muscle tissue). What is the best explanation for the existence of two very similar oxygen binding proteins in two very different organisms? | |
| Identify the chemical processes that give rise to the different forms of nitrogen, starting with N2. | N2 -> nitrogen binding by cyanobacteria (bac breaks nitrogen bond and connects N with H) -> NH3+ (ammonia) -> H+ from soil is added to make NH4- (ammonium) |
| Distinguish between an epiphyte and a parasitic plant. | Epiphyte--lives on another plant to gain some benefit (usually height) but does not harm the host. Parasite--gains nutrition or other benefit from its host, harming the host in the process |
| Usually the first thing we think about plants is that they are photosynthetic. Consider the non-photosynthetic parasites dodder and Indian pipe. Why are they still classified as plants? | They consume the products of photosynthesis (though photosynthesized by other plants). They reproduce like other plants. |
| How does a carnivorous or insectivorous plant attract its prey? | By sugar, color, and promise of food. |
| Plant nutrition | |
| soil / topsoil | Topsoil is made of granulates of rock, humus (organic decomposing matter), living organisms like bacteria, fungus, and nematode worms, and air. |
| sand | Largest size of rock granules in soil |
| silt | Medium sized rock granules in soil |
| clay | Smallest sized rock granules in soil |
| loam | rich, nutritious soil; best for growth of most plants |
| humus | decomposing organic matter found in soil |
| organic part of soil | humus, living organisms |
| essential nutrients/elements | nutrients necessary for a plant to complete its entire life cycle from germination to seed production |
| macronutrients | C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S For proteins, nucleic acids, and chlorophyll |
| micronutrients | Fe, Cl, Cn, Mn, Zn, Mo, B |
| hydroponic culture | |
| soil bacteria | |
| ammonia/ammonium | NH3+ / NH4- |
| nitrite | |
| nitrate | |
| bacteroids | |
| arbuscles | growths of fungal hyphae that resemble trees; as endo |
| nitrogen cycle | |
| nitrogen fixation | transformation of N2 to NH3; done only by bacteria |
| ammonification | |
| nitrification | nitrogen being added to the soil |
| denitrification | nitrogen being removed from soil |
| nitrogen-fixing bacteria | bacteria that can break the triple bond of atmospheric N2 and fix it with H, creating NH3 (ammonia) |
| rhizobium | a nitrogen-fixing bacterium; can partner with legumes to form root nodules |
| klebsiella | |
| frankia | |
| nodule | symbiotic fusion of bacteria and plant roots; makes small balls/growths on the roots; "infection" but mutually beneficial |
| legume | peas, beans, clover, alfalfa, soybeans, peanuts Can partner with rhizobium to form root nodules. |
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