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Biology Exam #2
Chapter 33, 54, 56, 58
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Characteristics of deuterostomes & which were the ancestral states | -Radial cleavage* -Mouth forms opposite of blastopore* -Coelom from mesodermal pockets |
| 3 phyla of deuterostomes | -Echinoderms -Hemichordates -Chordates |
| 3 main characteristics of deuterostomes | -Tripoblastic -Coelomate -Internal skeletons |
| Ancestral characteristics of deuterostomes | -Bilateral -Segmented -Pharyngeal slits for water |
| 2 groups of Ambulacrarians | Echinoderms & hemichordates |
| Echinoderms | -marine -5 part body plan with calcified internal skeleton (no head w/ oral & a oral sides) -water vascular system to tube feet (gas exchange, food, locomotion) -regeneration of lost parts -e.g. Sea stars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, sandollars |
| Hemichordates | -3 part body plan (trunk, collar, proboscis-to catch prey with sticky mucus) -digestive tract (intestine, pharynx/pharyngeal slit , mouth) -e.g. Acorn worms, pterobranch |
| 3 clades of the chordates | Urochordates, cephalochordates, & vertebrates |
| Derived characteristics of chordates | -dorsal, hollow nerve cord -postanal tail -notochord-supports dorsal, is flexible, core is fluid-filled vacuoles |
| Different notochords of urochordates & vertebrates | -urochordates = lost in metamorphosis -vertebrates = only in embryo |
| Pharyx | -slits only in developmental stage -used in gas exchange |
| Cephalochordates/Lancelets | -notochord retained & used for burrowing -extract prey from water using filter feeding in pharyngeal basket -marine & adult sedentary |
| Urochordates/Tunicates | -biggest group is Ascidians/sea squirts -colonies formed using budding -marine -show characteristics of chordates ONLY during larval stage |
| Difference between larval and adult sea squirts | -larvae = chordate characteristics -adult = sessile, surrounded by tunic of nutrients |
| Vertebrates | -jointed, dorsal vertebral column replaces notochord -anterior skull -organs in coelom -rigid internal skeleton -circulation system |
| Where and when did the vertebrates come about? | Marine/estuarine environments during Cambrian period |
| Two groups of jawless fishes | Hagfish and lampreys |
| Hagfish | -sister group of all vertebrates & lampreys -3 small hearts and basically nothing else -blind & produce slime |
| Lampreys | -complete cranium & cartilaginous vertebrae -complete metamorphosis from filter feeding larvae -parasitic -can live in anadromous or freshwater habitat -breed in freshwater |
| Gnathostomes | -jaws improved feeding -evolved during Ordovician -vertebrae with internal rigid skeleton - |
| 3 types of gnathostomes | Chrondrichthyans, ray-finned fishes, lobe-limbed vertebrates |
| Chrondrichthyans | -skeletons of cartilage -flexible, leathery skin -swim by lateral undulations or flapping pectoral fins -predatory or feed on floor -e.g. sharks, rays, skates, chimaeras |
| Ray-finned fishes | -calcified bones -scales -gills open by operculum -radiated during Tertiary -exploit all aquatic habitats for food |
| Lobe-limbed fishes | -lung-like sacs allowed & muscular fin changes allowed for land animals to evolve |
| 3 types of lobe-limbed fishes | -coelacanths (latimeria chalumnae only living species, cartilaginous skeleton is derived) -lungfishes (Devonian, lungs & gills, burrow in mud, survive in inactive states) -tetrapods (four limbs, Devonian fossil from 2006 is an intermediate) |
| 2 groups of tetrapods | -amphibians (moist habitats, lose water easily through skin, live on land, lay eggs in water) -amniotes (success on dry land through egg) |
| 3 groups of amphibians | -caecilians (wormlike, limbless, tropical burrowing) -anurans (e.g. tailless frogs/toads, short column & pelvic region for hopping/kicking) -salamanders (live in moist soil/rotting logs, gas exchange through skin/mouth lining, evolved though neoteny) |
| amniote egg | -impermeable to water -prevents evaporation -yolk = food -shell = 4 extra-embryonic membranes for protection |
| when did the amniotes split? | Carboniferous period in mammals and reptiles |
| lepidosaurs | -skin with horny scales -gas exchange through lungs -hearts divided into chambers |
| 2 groups of lepidosaurs | -squamates (e.g. lizards, snakes, amphisbaneians) -tuataras (2 species like lizards) |
| turtles | -dorsal & ventral bony plates form shell -aquatic & terrestrial |
| 3 groups of reptiles | lepidosaurs, turtles, archosaurs |
| 4 groups of archosaurs | crocodilians, pterosaurs, dinosaurs, birds |
| crocodilians | -carnivorous -nests on land & uses heat from decaying organic matter to warm eggs |
| dinosaurs | -dominated Mesozoic -3 branches = sauropods (e.g. Littlefoot), ornithischians ("bird-hipped", e.g. Cera), theropods (2-legged, predatory) |
| birds | -2 groups = palaeognaths (flightless), neognaths (flying) -diverged during Cretaceous -e.g. Archaeopteryx (oldest known fossil bird) -evolution of feathers |
| feathers | -lightweight & strong -insulation -bones are hollow with internal struts -sternum attaches flight muscles -metabolically expensive (generate lots of heat) -gas exchange efficiency with air flow in one direction |
| key features of mammals | -sweat glands -mammary glands -hair -4 chambered heart -eggs fertilized internally -development in uterus in amniotic sac -placenta connects embryo & uterus wall -nurse young with milk |
| 2 groups of living mammals | -prototherians (e.g. duck-billed platypus & echidnas, lay shelled eggs, lack placenta, sprawling legs) -therians |
| 2 subdivisions of therians | -marsupials (carry/feed young in ventral pouch, born early) -eutherians (placentas, dominant terrestrial predators) |
| features of eutherian primates | grasping limbs & digits |
| 2 groups of eutherian primates | prosimians (arboreal, nocturnal, terrestrial & diurnal, e.g. lemurs, lorises, galagos) -anthropoids (arboreal, prehensile tails, e.g. Old/New World monkeys, apes, humans) |
| hominins | modern humans & extinct relatives |
| adipithecines | -earliest protohominins -bipedal locomotion |
| australopithecines | -descendants of adipithecines -e.g. "Lucy" |
| Homo habilis | -found in Africa -tools used to obtain food |
| Homo erectus | -spread to eastern Asia -almost as large as modern people -smaller brains -fire/stone tools |
| H. sapiens | -modern humans -sophisticated tools -reached North America |
| Cro-Magnons | -H. sapiens that exterminated H. neanderthalensis |
| ecology | scientific study of interactions between organisms & their environment |
| what defines the environment? | abiotic & biotic factors |
| organism | responses to environmental conditions by individual (physiological) |
| population | collective responses by members of single species (statistical) |
| community | interaction among species |
| ecosystem | biotic + abiotic environment |
| application of ecology (3) | -ability to grow food sustainbly -manage pests/diseases -deal with natural disasters |
| climate | average atmospheric conditions over long-term |
| weather | short-term state of atmospheric conditions at specific time and place |
| how does climate vary? | -variation in amount of solar energy -angle of sunlight |
| higher latitutdes receive (more/less) solar energy than the equator & temperatures (increase/decrease) | less; decrease |
| what does solar energy help determine? | atmospheric circulation patterns |
| what does air do when it warms? | rises & releases moisture (precipitation) |
| where is Earth's velocity the fastest? slowest? | equator; poles |
| types of prevailing winds | trade winds, westerlies, easterlies |
| how are prevailing winds formed? | air masses moving N/S deflected |
| intertropical convergence zone | -where air masses from N meets S -heavy rains -shifts latitudinally |
| currents | ocean circulation patterns |
| what affects currents? | prevailing wind patterns |
| gyres | circular currents from warm water carrying heat to poles |
| upwelling | area of deeper, colder water from winds pulling surface water away |
| where does water converge & then split? | equator |
| biome | environment defined by climatic and geographic attributes & characterized by dominant plants |
| what determines biome distribution? | temperature & rainfall |
| how do topographic features influence distribution of organisms? | -affects temperature & precipitation -proximity to lake/ocean moderates climate |
| rain shadow | dry areas on leeward side of mountain resulting from dry air descending after precipitation from prevailing winds |
| deserts | -low rain during growing season -often hot |
| cold desert | -continental interiors & rain shadows |
| hot desert | -more species & diverse vegetation -succulents |
| thorn forest & tropical savanna | -low rain in winter -grasses & scattered trees (e.g. Acacia trees) -large grazing/browsing mammals -burned/not grazed turns into thorn forest -e.g. Africa |
| temperate grassland | -seasonal drought/fire -animal grazing -hot summmer & cold winter -rich in species/grasses -agriculture |
| tropical evergreen rain forest | -equatorial regions -high rainfall -highest species diversity -highest productivity -soil poor -nutrients in vegetation |
| tropical deciduous forest | -trees lose leaves during dry season -plants pollinated by animals -"refueling" stops from migratory birds -agriculture |
| temperate deciduous forest | -even precipitation -temperatures fluctuate -lose leaves during cold season -animals migrate/hibernate |
| boreal forest/taiga | -northern latitudes -long cold winters -e.g. evergreens |
| tundra | -vegetation = low-growing perennials -permafrost soils -animals migrate/dormant for much of year |
| "life zones" | -divisions of the ocean -identified by water depth & light penetration |
| photic zone | -enough light for photosynthesis |
| coastal zone | -shoreline to edge of continental shelf -shallow, well-oxygenated water -stable temperatures & salinities -e.g. corals, seaweeds, kelps |
| littoral zone | area of coastal zone affected by wave action |
| intertidal | -b/w high-and-low tide levels -temperatures & salinity varies greatly |
| phytoplankton | dominant autotrophs in oceans |
| pelagic zone | -dominant consumers = zooplankton -small crustaceans & larval stages |
| benthic zone | -adapted to life on seafloor -sessile animals & motile bottom feeders |
| aphotic zone | -<1% sunlight -decaying organic matter from photic zone -deep-ocean trenches & rich valleys with hydrothermal vent ecosystems |
| lakes/ponds | -still water (lentic) -habitats with varying productivity |
| rivers/streams | -moving water (lotic) -productivity varies |
| wetland | -transitional b/w terrestrial & aquatic -shallow & very productive -water levels fluctuate |
| estuaries | -transitional b/w freshwater & marine -very productive -unique species |
| most productive aquatic systems (3) | estuary, coastal marine, coral reef |
| benefit of estuaries | -purifying terrestrial runoff/groundwater |
| how do humans threaten estuaries? | -overfishing -habitat destruction -pollution |
| how are biogeographic regions created in oceans? | ocean currents contribute to abrupt changes in temperature & salinity |
| 5 categories of interactions among species | -antagonistic (one benefits & other harmed) -mutualism (both benefit) -competition (2 or more use same resource) -commensalism (one benefits & other unaffected) -ammensalism (one unaffected & other harmed) |
| coevolution | adaptation in one species may lead to evolution of adaptation in species it interacts with |
| coevolutionary "arms race" | series of reciprocal adaptations over time |
| what types of interactions most likely to coevolution? | -predictable -with high frequency -have strong effect on interacting species |
| which 2 types of interactions are more likely to coevolve? | antagonistic and mutualistic |
| predator-prey interactions | -predator fitness depends on balancing cost of pursuing & handling prey against energetic return of its consumption -many predators larger than prey -predators smaller than prey use other strategies (e.g. spider webs, short-tailed shrew) |
| prey defense systems | -crypsis (camouflage into background) -escape -morphological defenses (e.g. shells, spines) -chemical defenses in smaller/weaker prey (e.g. spray, ooze) |
| examples of adaptations in predators to overcome prey's chemical defenses | -sea slugs feed on sponges to concentrate toxic chemicals -sea slugs feed on hydrozoans & incorporate stinging cells into own bodies |
| aposematism/warning coloration | bright coloration serve as warning signal for toxic prey species |
| 2 types of mimicry | -Batesian (nontoxic represent toxic) -Mullerian (number of aposematic converge on common color pattern, stronger recognition signal) |
| homotypy | prey resembles something predator considers inedible |
| 2 types of herbivores | -90% oligophagous (specialized on one or few taxa) -10% polyphagous (feed on many unrelated species) |
| plant defenses against herbivory | -secondary metabolites -hard to digest (e.g. thorns, spines, hair, silica, etc.) |
| how do herbivores avoid plant defense chemicals? (4) | -behavior (e.g. roll leaves to keep out light) -omnivory (eat variety of plants) -systems to detoxify defense chemicals -sequester plant toxins in specialized organs |
| microparasites | -smaller than hosts -generally live & reproduce in host -pathogens (must continually infect, state of coexistence) |
| macroparasites/ectoparasites | -briefly associated with hosts -e.g. leech, mosquito -can spend entire life on host (e.g. crabs) -host can try to rid ectoparasites |
| where is mutualism most common? | resources in short supply & involve exchange of food for housing or defense |
| examples of mutualism (5) | -plants & mycorrhizae -corals & protists -plants & pollinators -fungus "farming" -acacia tree & acacia ants |
| when are reciprocal adaptations most likely to arise? | increase dependency provides increase in benefits (or else parasitism, extinction, independence) |
| fungus "farming" | -mutualistic relationship -insects provide housing and protection for fungi -e.g. southern pine bark beetle (destroys pine forest in SE US) |
| how does the southern pine bark beetle work? | -excavate galleries in vascular tissue under bark -lay eggs in galleries -fungus breaks down gallery walls & beetles feed on it -beetles transport bacterium that produces antibiotic to prevent attacks on fungus |
| acacia trees & acacia ants | -ants build nest in enlarged bases of hollow thorns -defend acacia trees against herbivores & competitiors |
| critical components of mutualistic pollination system of flowering plants | -attractant (entices pollinator) -behavior (ensures more than one visit) -anatomical features (allow transport of pollen) |
| how do plants protect pollen and pollination system? (3) | -two anthers (food & reproduction) -flowers resemble female wasps to attract males -male wasps try to copulate with flower |
| frugivores | -animals that eat fruit & important in seed dispersal -fruits are most attractive when seeds are mature -asymmetrical mutualism (seeds may not get deposited where they can grow) |
| example of highly specific plant-pollinator relationship | Yucca plants - pollinated by yucca moths whose larvae feed only on yucca seeds |
| competition | 2 organisms using same resource that is insufficient to supply needs of both, influencing abundance & distribution of species |
| intraspecific competition | -among individuals of same species -primary cause of density-dependent birth/death rates |
| interspecific compeitition | among individuals of different species |
| competitive exclusion | -superior competitor prevents another species from using habitat/resource -e.g. plants competing for space |
| resource partitioning | species can coexist due to selection pressures from interspecific competition affecting how they use limiting resource |
| interference competition | -competitor interferes with another competitor's access to resource -e.g. desert ants & honeypot ants |
| exploitation competition | one competitor more efficient in using resource than another |
| how can exploitation competition lead to coexistence? | when paired with resource partitioning |
| guilds | -groups of species exploiting same resource in slightly different ways -arise from resource partitioning -e.g. different bees depending on abundance of flowers |
| character displacement | -individuals within species have different behavior/morphology depending on whether they are competing -e.g. pollinating cacti by finches/bees |
| niche | set of physical/biological conditions a species needs to survive/grow/reproduce |
| niche partitioning | -competitors may restrict resource use in some regions -e.g. barnacle species (Chthamalus/higher zone & Balanus/lower zone) |
| 2 types of niche partitioning | -fundamental niche (physiological capabilities) -realized niche (interactions with other species) |
| ecosystem | all organisms & physical/chemical factors influencing them |
| what drives processes that move materials around the planet? | energy from sun & radioactive decay |
| flux | rate at which energy/elements move through system |
| pool | accumulation of elements |
| sinks | where element taken out of circulation for long periods of time |
| residence time | |
| ecosystem | all organisms & physical/chemical factors influencing them |
| where do we get energy that drive processes that move materials around planet? | sun & radioactive decay |
| flux | rate at which energy/elements move through system |
| pool | accumulation of elements |
| sinks | pools where element is taken out of circulation for long periods of time |
| residence time | how long element remains in compound |
| how do elements move around planet? | cyclic fashion |
| in what direction does energy flow? | from producers to consumers |
| how is energy dissipated? | -as heat -lost from ecosystem |
| 4 compartments of physical environment | -atmosphere -oceans -freshwaters -land |
| atmosphere | -thin layer of gases surrounding earth -78% N -21% O -1% argon -0.03% CO2 |
| troposphere | -lowest layer of atmosphere -contains 80% of mass -global air circulation & water vapor |
| stratosphere | -extends to about 50km -ozone layer (absorbs most biologically damaging UV radiation) -release of CFCs -> chemical reactions |
| how does the atmosphere regulate earth's temperature? | -greenhouse gases (transparent to sunlight but trap heat radiating from earth's surface) -human activities increase greenhouse activities |
| upwelling zones | -offshore winds push water away from shore -cold bottom water move up = nutrient rich & supports photosynthesis |
| example of freshwaters (4) | rivers, streams, lakes, groundwater |
| surface waters of lakes depleted in ___________ & bottom water depleted in _____________ | nutrients & oxygen |
| how is depletion reversed? | turnover/mixing caused by wind/temperature |
| where is water most dense? | 4 degrees C |
| thermocline | transition of warm surface water floating over colder more dense bottom water |
| how are rocks formed on land? | tectonic processes |
| how is soil formed? | -weathering of rocks -climate/biota |
| different types of ecosystems have (different/same) rates of production | different |
| how are the terrestrial/atmospheric compartment connected? | -organisms that remove/release elements from atmosphere -chemical elements in soil carried in solution in groundwater/surface waters into the oceans |
| pattern in primary production | highest near equator where temps are warm & moisture exists |
| how do humans effect NPP? | -modify energy flow -consumption |
| how does fire affect environment? | -mover of elements -release energy/elements stored in vegetation -production of greenhouse gases |
| where is production less? | -limited light/temp -deep places |
| biogeochemical cycles | movement of elements through organisms to physical environment and back |
| hydrological cycle | -movement of water transfers elements -evaporated water returned via precipitation -water returns to oceans via runoff/groundwater |
| residence time of water in oceans | 3000 years |
| how have humans impacted distribution of freshwater? | dams & canals alter flow patters |
| effect of irrigation | groundwater aquifers depleted |
| nutrients | recycled elements required for development, maintenance, reproduction of organisms |
| nutrient cycling | use, transformation, movement, reuse of nutrients in ecosystems |
| 3 main nutrient cycles | -carbon -nitrogen -phosphorus |
| carbon cycle | -incorporated into organic molecules by autotrophs -returned to atmosphere by metabolism of organisms -stored in rocks/sediments (reservoir) -absorbed/dissolved in oceans through diffusion (reservoir) |
| effect of absorption of carbon by oceans | -surface waters more acidic -bleaching & death of corals -> collapse of coral reefs |
| fossil fuels | -result from burial of organisms in anaerobic environments -accumulated organic molecules -release CO2 faster than it can be absorbed (Keeling curve) |
| Keeling curve | -shows annual cycle reflecting seasonality of atmospheric CO2 -vegetation absorbs CO2 during summer (decrease) & during winter vegetation dies (increase) |
| effects of building of atmospheric CO2 | -warming Earth -increases rates of metabolism -> returns more CO2 to atmosphere through respiration |
| consequences of increasing atmospheric CO2 (6) | -increase in mean annual temp -increased drought -increased precipitation -melting ice caps/glaciers -sea level rise -> flooding on land affecting agriculture -increase number/intensity of tropical storms |
| effects of global climate warming | -distribution/abundance of species & their interactions -proliferation of diseases |
| nitrogen cycle | -N fixing bacteria can fix N into form usable by plants -denitrification (return N to atmosphere) -largest pool actively cycled in oceans -human activity industrially fixes N through fertilizers (as good as natural processes) |
| effects of N fixation | -excess moves to groundwater/runoff which contaminates freshwater |
| eutrophication | -result of excess nutrients -e.g. Dead zone of Gulf of Mexico |
| phosphorus cycle | -essential for DNA, RNA, ATP, phospholipids -lacks gaseous phase (little P in atmosphere) -rapidly in organisms -slowly in crust |
| where most phosphorus is located | -marine sediments -ocean water |
| how humans use phosphorus | -artificial fertilizers -laundry detergent |
| effects of over-fertilization | accumulation in soils can increase runoff |
| effects of phosphorus enrichment & eutrophication of lakes/streams | -algal growth/death -low oxygen |
| ecosystem goods/services | -production of services -short-term services lead to long-term degradation of others |
| sustainability | practices that allow us to conserve or enhance ecosystems so same to benefit from specific ecosystem goods/service over long term without compromising |
| sustainably managed ecosystems | -high economic value -e.g. sustainable fisheries |
| challenges to sustainable management | -education regarding importance of ecosystems & services -recognition that long-term goals are important |
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