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Biology Exam #2
Chapters 32, 53, 55, 57, 59
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Two triploblastic clades? | Protostomes and Deuterostomes |
| Which type is more common? | Protostomes, which make up >94% of animals. |
| Major clades of protostomes? (2) | Lophotrochozoans and Ecdysozoans |
| What do all protostome animals have? | -three germ layers (triploblastic) -bilateral symmetry (at least part of life) -anterior brain near mouth -ventral nervous system w/ paired/fused nerve cords |
| Similar development of protostomes | -spiral and determinate cleavage -Schizocoelous body cavity forms -mouth develops from blastopore |
| Ancestor of protostomes had a coelom but some diverged | -Flatworm: acoelomate -Arthropods: have hemocoel (blood chamber) -Mollusks: open circulatory system but retained enclosed coelom |
| Lophotrochozoans (1st group of protostomes) | -internal skeletons -many have trochophore larvae -some have a lophophore (circular/U-shaped feeding structure) |
| Ecdysozoans (2nd group of protostomes) | -external skeleton -grows by ecdysis (molting) -all have single common ancestor |
| Arrow worms?? | -similar to deuterostomes but identified as a protostome (due to molecular data) -possible sister group to all other protostomes -predators of plankton -approx. 100 species -2 pairs of lateral fins and tail fin |
| Molting | -shedding exoskeletons that are replaced by new ones so the ecdysozoans can grow -evolved 500 million years ago |
| Cuticle | -thin exoskeletons that cover some worm-like ecdysozoans -allows gas and water exchange (restricts them to moist places) |
| Arthropods (clade under ecdysozoans) | -hard exoskeletons made of proteins and chitin(strong polysaccharide) |
| Bryozoans "moss animals" (group under lophotrochozoans) | -colonial and secretes material that forms a "house" -in some species, individuals can become specialized -reproduce sexually -sperm released in & carried by water -individuals can rotate lophophore to increase contact w/ prey |
| Flatworms | -acoelomates -approx. 25,000 species; most parasitic -include tapeworms and flukes -have cephalization, bilateral, and blind sac for stomach |
| Synapomorphy of phoronids and brachiopods? | have lophophores that evolved independently from the bryozoans |
| Brachiopods | -"lamp shells' -solitary marine animals -sessile and lack a head -larvae are planktonic -peaked in abundance in Paleozoic and Mesozoic (approx. 26,000) -only 355 species today |
| Annelids | -segmented coelomates with specialization -includes polychaetes, oligochaetes, and leeches -thin permeable body wall for gas exchange -live in moist habitats -have bristles for crawling |
| Polychaetes | -not a single clade -mostly marine worms -parapodia: extensions body wall & function in gas exchange, and movement -includes pogonophorans |
| Pogonophorans | -deep sea tube worms that lost digestive tract -secrete tubes of chitin in which they live -live near hydrothermal vents -take up dissolved organic matter |
| Mollusks | -most diverse group of lophotrochozoans -unsegmented coelomates -approx. 95,000 species - |
| 4 Main groups of mollusks | 1. Chitons 2. Bivalves (clams, oysters, scallops, mussels) 3. Gastropods (snails, sea slugs, slugs, limpets, abalones) 4. Cephalopods (squids, octopuses, nautiluses). |
| Parts of a mollusk | -Foot: muscular structure, originally for locomotion and support of internal organs -Visceral mass: heart, digestive, excretory, and reproductive organs. -Mantle: fold of tissue that covers organs in the visceral mass & secretes the calcareous shell. |
| Open circulatory system of mollusks | Blood and fluids empty into the hemocoel, where oxygen is delivered to internal organs |
| 8 Phyla of Ecdysozoans (PKL H. NOTA) | -priapulids -kinorhynchs -loriciferans -horsehair worms -nematodes -onychophorans -tardigrades -arthropods |
| Priapulids, Kinorhynchs, and Loriciferans | -worm-like & marine -have thin cuticles that molt as they grow |
| Priapulids | -unsegmented -three segments -burrow in soft sediments -capture prey with a pharynx |
| Kinorhynchs | -microscopic -13 segments -feed by ingesting sediments through their retractable proboscis. |
| Loriciferans | -small -body covered by six plates -"lorica": closet |
| Horsehair worms | -very thin -up to 2 meters -mostly freshwater. -larvae are internal parasites of insects and crayfish. -adult has no mouth and a reduced gut. |
| Nematodes (round worms) | -unsegmented -free-living & parasitic -approx. 25,000 species -thick multi-layer cuticle -parasites of humans cause trichinosis, filariasis, and elephantiasis -C. elegans |
| Onycophorans | -closely are related to arthropods but lack specialization -Segmented worms -predators. -150 species; live in humid tropical areas. -thin, flexible cuticle -use fluid-filled body cavity as a hydrostatic skeleton for movement. |
| Tardigrades | -water bears -same cavity of onycophorans -very small, no circulatory or gas exchange systems -when water lost can shrink to form a dormant state that can last at least a decade |
| Arthropods | -most diverse animal (over 1 million species) -each segment has muscles that operate a segment and its appendages -complex movement patterns -Rigid exoskeleton provides support and safety |
| Trilobites | -first appearance of jointed legs -flourished in Cambrian and Ordovician -went extinct at the end of the Permian |
| Myriapods & Chelicerates (groups of arthropods) | have body with two regions: head and trunk |
| Myriapods | -centipedes and millipedes -head with very long trunk & many legs -centipedes are carnivorous but millipedes are herbivores |
| Chelicerates | -head has pair of appendages that act as mouthparts -includes pycnogonids (small sea spiders) and horseshoe crabs and arachnids |
| Horseshoe crabs | -bottom-dwellers found in shallow water -go to intertidal zone to mate and lay eggs -changed very little |
| Arachnids | -spiders, scorpions, mites, and ticks -have chelicerae, pedipalps, and 8 legs -“Silk” threads are produced by modified abdominal appendages |
| Crustaceans (still arthropods) | -dominant marine arthropods -includes shrimp, lobster, crayfish, and crabs -most have head, thorax, and abdomen -many have a carapace |
| Carapace | a fold of exoskeleton that extends over the head and thorax region |
| Hexapods (arthropods) i.e. insects | -head, thorax, and abdomen -antennae on head & 3 legs on thorax -air sacs and tubular channels called tracheae extend from external openings (spiracles) into tissues throughout the body. |
| Wingless hexapods | -includes Springtails, bristletails, and silverfish -wingless relatives of insects with internal mouth parts -probably resemble the insect ancestor |
| Pterygote insects | -have two sets of wings -dragonflies can't hold wings against their body (ancestral) |
| Metamorphosis | -substantial changes that occur between stages. -Incomplete metamorphosis: changes are gradual. -Complete metamorphosis: changes are drastic |
| Instars | immature stages between molts |
| Neopterans | -all other pterygote insects that can fold their wings -some have incomplete metamorphosis -Holometabolous insects have complete metamorphosis |
| When did insects and crustaceans separate? | 450 million years ago (mya) |
| Factors that contribute to success of protostomes | segmentation, complex life cycles, parasitism, diverse feeding structures, hard body coverings, and better locomotion |
| Chapter 53 | :D |
| Ethology | study of animal behavior from an evolutionary standpoint |
| Proximate mechanisms | neuronal, hormonal, anatomical mechanisms |
| Ultimate causes | selection pressures that shaped evolution of the behavior |
| Stereotypic behavior | -always exactly the same -often specific to a species -i.e. specific web spinning by spider species |
| 2 important experimental approaches | Deprivation experiments and Genetic experiments |
| Deprivation experiments | -young animals are reared with no experiences related to the behavior under study -i.e. squirrel in cage on liquid diet tried to bury nut when given one |
| Genetic experiments | -provide insights into the genetic basis of behavior -selective breeding in plants & dogs |
| Genetic behavior in ducks | -experiments done by Konrad Lorenz -males performed courtship displays specific to species -hybrids had elements of each "dance" & were't picked by females (sexual selection) |
| fosB in female mice | female mice with fosB gene provide care for their pups; mutants with an inactive gene ignore their pups. -the fosB gene stimulates changes in the hypothalamus |
| Genetic control of behavior | -can be adaptive (i.e. contribute to success of next generation) -In non-overlapping generations: offspring cannot learn behavior from parents |
| Releaser | –an object, event, or condition required to elicit a behavior -i.e. the nut was a releaser for the squirrel |
| Critical period | time in an animal's life where learning takes place |
| Imprinting | animal learns a set of stimuli during a critical period, recognition of parents and offspring |
| Habitat Selection | -Habitat must provide food, shelter, nest sites, escape routes -i.e. abalone veliger larvae recognize a chemical signal from corraline algae, their best food source, and settle there |
| Visual Cues | -used for habitat selection -animals look at which animals are already present to determine if -i.e. collared flycatchers look into nests of other birds; brood size indicates good habitat quality |
| Territory | area in which animals make their presence known and which excludes conspecifics (others of same species) |
| Cost-benefit approach | -used to analyze behaviors -animal has limited energy for activities, animals cannot perform behaviors if energetic cost is greater than benefits of behavior |
| 3 components of cost | Energetic (energy difference expended if resting vs. performing in behavior), Risk (increased chance of being hurt/killed as a result of behavior), and Opportunity Cost (benefits the animal forfeits) |
| Foraging theory | -uses cost-benefit analysis to study food choice -animals make choices among available prey in order to maximize the rate of energy intake -When food abundant, animal should take that and ignore rarer food |
| Circadian rhythm | -daily cycle of activities -length: period -point: phase |
| Nocturnal vs. Diurnal | -diurnal animals are more visual -nocturnal ones depend more on hearing, smell, touch, and have retinas made for low light |
| Photoperiod | change in day length and indicator of season change |
| Circannual rhythms | built-in neural calendars |
| Piloting | knowing and remembering the structure of the environment (i.e. gray whales from Mexico to Bering Sea) |
| Homing | ability to return to the same place from long distances (i.e. pigeons) |
| Migration | movement of a whole species with the changes of season (i.e. birds returning to breeding grounds) |
| Bicoordinate (true) navigation | –requires knowing current position relative to destination (i.e. albatrosses) |
| Birds in planetarium | If the planetarium didn’t rotate while they were raised, the birds didn’t orient in any direction (birds may also sense magnetic fields) |
| Animal communication | -can be signals or gestures -visual signals easy to produce, but not useful at night -loud vocalizations indicate strong males |
| Pheromones | -chemical signals between individuals -can convey species, size, reproductive status, etc -can stay in environment for long time |
| Auditory signals | -can be used at night, over long distances, and in complex environments -not as much info as visual |
| Tactile interactions | -common among animals -ex. dance of the honeybees (round dance if food <80m away) |
| Social behavior | happens when individuals gain greater fitness by working together than alone |
| Costs of social behavior | -more competition for mating or getting food -increased risk of disease - |
| inclusive fitness | an organism's individual fitness (# of gene copies of an individual in the next generation), plus the number of equivalents of its own offspring it can add to the population by supporting others. |
| Altruistic acts | -behavior that may reduce helper’s fitness, but increases fitness of individual helped -naturally favored |
| Eusociality | -highest level of organization of animal sociality -cooperative brood care -often have nests for large group -includes termites, ants, bees -usually a fertile queen and infertile workers |
| Benefits of social behavior | -high population densities -greater defense |
| Chapter 55 | >:P |
| Population dynamics | patterns and processes of change in populations |
| Age structure | age distribution of individuals, and how those individuals are spread over the environment |
| Population density | # of individuals per unit area |
| Demographic events | -deaths, births, emigration, immigration -create population dynamics |
| Full census | possible when population is small and animal is large (i.e. elephant reservation in Kenya) |
| Molecular markers | -used to track individuals -H isotopes in birds |
| Mark-recapture method | -marking of some individuals, then capturing another sample of individuals -estimates population size - |
| Dispersion | distribution of individuals in space, determines patterns of interaction among individuals |
| 3 dispersion patterns | -Clumped: presence of one indicates more there (pods of whales) -Regular: presence of one reduces probability of another nearby (territorial birds) -Random: equal chance of individual being anywhere (dandelions in a field) |
| Why so many humans? | domestication of plants and animals, increasing crop and livestock yields through ongoing technological advances, plus medical advances |
| Equation for population | N1 = N0 + (B – D) + (I – E) |
| Cohort life table | tracks demographic events of a group of individuals born at the same time |
| Mortality | proportion of each age class that die before reaching the next age class |
| Fecundity | number of female offspring produced by each female, allows estimate of population’s potential for growth |
| 3 patterns of survivorship curves | Physiological, Ecological, and Maturational |
| Physiological (Type I) | -high survivorship through adulthood -i.e. humans/large mammals -parental care & low fecundity |
| Ecological (Type II) | Constant risk of mortality at all ages (i.e. most birds) |
| Maturational (type III) | -low juvenile survivorship -many offspring and little parental care -many insects |
| life history strategy | how an animal allocates time and energy among the various activities throughout its life |
| Semelparous | animals that reproduce once, then die (i.e. salmon) |
| Iteroparous | -animals that reproduce many times throughout their lives -typical of those that have high survivorship once they reach maturity |
| Guppies in Trinidad THM | Predation favored early and frequent reproduction ->changing the guppy genotype. |
| per capita growth rate (r) | r=b-d If birth rate exceeds death rate, r > 0, the population is growing |
| biotic potential | rN, which represents the maximum growth rate a species may reach |
| intrinsic rate of increase | -maximum value for r -rate of increase possible under ideal conditions - |
| carrying capacity (K) | -number of individuals that can be supported in an environment indefinitely -determined by the availability of resources -logistic growth pattern |
| density-dependent factors | -increase in proportion to population density -food supplies become limited -predators attracted to high densities of prey -pathogens spread more quickly |
| density-independent factors | impact does not depend on population density, such as intense storms or cold periods |
| r-strategists | life history strategies that allow for high intrinsic rate of increase |
| K-strategists | life history strategies allow them to persist at or near the carrying capacity |
| 3 factors that influence population density | resource abundance (herbivores>), size of individuals (smaller>), time species has lived in an area (new area>) |
| metapopulation | The larger population to which the subpopulations belong |
| Corridors | -connections between patches in populations facilitate dispersal to maintain subpopulations -When habitat patches were connected by corridors, more species were able to maintain populations |
| Biological control | use of natural predators to control pests |
| Chapter 57 | <(o.o<) (>o.o)> <(0.0)> |
| Ecological community | all species living/interacting in an area |
| Characterization of communities | 1. Species composition—the number and kinds of species they contain. 2. The relative abundances of those species. |
| Photosynthetic Primary Production (PP) | fixation of solar energy by autotrophs in an ecosystem |
| NPP = GPP – R | GPP = total amount of energy fixed by all autotrophs in ecosystem NPP = energy left over after the autotrophs have met their energetic needs, i.e. respiration (R) |
| Trophic levels | Primary producers -> Herbivores (Primary Consumers) -> Carnivores (secondary consumers) ->Detritovores (decomposers) |
| Omnivores | Organisms that get food from more than one trophic level |
| Food webs | interconnected food chains that show trophic interactions in a community. |
| Ecological Efficiency | -the overall transfer of energy from one trophic level to the next -only approx. 10% of energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next |
| Limits of trophic levels | -progressive energy loss limits trophic levels (mostly between 3-5) -each level has fewer species, less offspring, and bigger mass - |
| Trophic Cascade | progression of indirect effects across successive trophic levels (i.e. the explosion of elk when wolves removed from Yellowstone) -other examples: bunny boom in Tasmania & zooplanktivores in ocean) |
| Ecosystem engineers | organisms that influence ecosystem structure (i.e. beavers) |
| Keystone species | A species that exerts influence out of proportion with its abundance (i.e. sea stars, sea otters, and freshwater bass) |
| Alpha diversity | -within a single community or habitat; measured by counting species -same as species richness |
| Beta diversity | between-site diversity; change in species composition from one habitat (or site) to another |
| Gamma diversity | regional diversity over a range of communities in a larger geographic region |
| Field Example in Diversity | Rivers: high species richness (alpha diversity) but low beta diversity (all rivers had same species) Ponds: high beta diversity Ditches: lowest alpha diversity, but many species were found in only one ditch- very high beta diversity |
| More diversity towards equator | organisms had more time to diversify, more habitat types, more competition, and increased predation led to survival of rare species |
| species-area relationship | mathematical relationship between the size of an area of habitat and the number of species that area contains |
| Immigration/extinction of island species influenced by... | Distance from species pool and size of island |
| a disturbance | an event that changes the survival rate of one or more species (i.e. windstorm that knocks down trees) |
| Succession | Patterns of change in community composition following disturbance is called |
| 3 types of succession | Primary succession begins on sites that lack living organisms Secondary succession begins on sites where some organisms have survived Directional succession is characterized by a predictable progression of community assemblages |
| Species richness | Environments that are rich in species are more efficient and prepared for environmental change |
| Monocultures | -single species -how crops are grown -vulnerable to outbreaks of pests -polycultures (many crops) can reduce pests through more diversity |
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