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COGS 17 HW 1
Basic Terms, CNS/PNS, Neural Functioning, Development, Brain Study Techniques
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Ipsilateral vs. Contralateral | Connecting to the same side vs connecting to the opposite side. |
| Lateral vs. Medial | Towards the sides vs. towards the middle. |
| Ventral vs. Dorsal | Towards the stomach/bottom of the human head vs. towards the back/top of the human head. |
| Superior vs. Inferior | A structure above another vs. a structure below another. |
| Coronal vs. Saggital vs. Horizontal | Planes through the head as seen from the front/back vs. middle/side vs. top/bottom. |
| Rostral/Anterior vs. Caudal/Posterior | Towards the front vs. towards the back. |
| Central Nervous System | Spinal Cord and Brain (everything encased in bone) |
| Peripheral Nervous System | Nerves outside the CNS--has two subsystems, somatic and autonomic. |
| Somatic Nervous System | PNS subsystem responsible for the interaction with the external environment (sensory/motor) |
| Autonomic Nervous System | PNS subsystem responsible for regulating the internal environment (controls inner organs) |
| Diencephalon | Division of the forebrain that ultimately becomes the thalamus, hypothalamus, and the eyes. Part of the brainstem. |
| Thalamus | Primary source of input to the cerebral cortex; principle stop along most sensory, motor and arousal pathways. Has some intrinsic (internal) neurons for information processing. |
| Hypothalamus | Oversees the "4 Fs," (feeding, fighting, fleeing, and...sex; critical survival functions), temperature and clock, communicates with and through the endocrine system (pituitary gland) through hormone release. |
| Telencephalon | Division of the forebrain that eventually becomes the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system, etc. |
| Medulla | Hindbrain structure that controls vital reflexes (berating, heart rate, vomiting, coughing). Overdoses of cocaine, heroine, etc, can be fatal due to their effect on the medulla. |
| Pons | Hindbrain structure that acts as a bridge between the hindbrain and higher centers. Relays info between the cortex and cerebellum as well as the brain and spinal cord. Has some cranial nerves and sleep / arousal systems. |
| Cerebellum | "Little brain," hindbrain structure involved primarily in guiding and timing movements (grace), and relevant shifting of information. |
| Reticular Formation | Network of cells moving medially through the hind- and mid-brain, involved in arousal. |
| Raphe System | Core strip of cells through the hind- and mid- brain, involved in sleep. |
| Tegmentum | Midbrain structure involved in midbrain processes, included red nucleus and substantial nigra w/ dopaminergic neurons that degenerate in Parkinsons. Has cranial nerves for eye movement and part of reticular formation. |
| Tactum | Midbrain structure involved in sensory processes, incudes the superior (visual, accounts for blindsight) and inferior (auditory) colliculi. |
| Pituitary | Forebrain structure, "master gland," stimulated by the hypothalamus, releases hormones. |
| Limbic System | Set of forebrain structures involved in motivation and emotional expression. Includes (w/ hypothalamus) the hippocampus, amygdala, cingulate gyrus, olfactory bulb, etc. |
| Hippocampus | Part of the limbic system, "little seahorse," posterior and inferior to the thalamus/hypothalamus, important in the formation of new memories and spacial mapping. Some memories stored here, helps the direction of others. |
| Amygdala | Part of the limbic system, associated with emotional expressions, esp. anger and fear, as well as recognizing/interpreting emotions in others. |
| Cingulate Gyrus | Part of the limbic system, "re-entrant" layer mediating between the cortex and lower systems, esp. for good/bad evaluations (social situations). |
| Olfactory Bulb | Part of limbic system, receives smell info from olfactory receptors and goes to olfactory cortex. Exchanges with rest of limbic system and responsible for memories associated with smell. Enhanced when emotionally (hunger, fear) aroused. |
| Basal Ganglia | Forebrain structure including the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globes pallid us, involved in the organization of movement sequences and task setting. Mediated by emotion and memory. |
| Basal Forebrain | Forebrain structure including the nucleus accumbens, involved in the arousal of cortex, attention, and reinforcement. Main source of ACh. Implicated in sleep/arousal and Parkinson's and Alzheimer's. |
| Cortex | Forebrain Structure, outer "bark" of brain, 6-layered, highly convoluted. Made of gyri and sulci. |
| Corpus Callusum | Set of axons connecting the two cerebral hemispheres. Relays information across the brain. |
| Occipital Lobe | Posterior lobe, involved primarily in visual processing, includes V1 (Striate Cortex), color processing and range of spacial frequencies (e.g.: high for faces, low for settings). |
| Temporal Lobe | Lateral lobe, primarily involved in auditory processing (eg.: A1 and Weirnicke's Area) higher visual (IT/who-what), emotional (right hemisphere) and language comprehension. |
| Parietal Lobe | Lobe posterior to the central sulcus, primarily involved in somatosensory and visuo-spatial mapping (and higher visual, where-how). Part of mirror cell system, Penfield Map. |
| Frontal Lobe | Lobe of the Cortex anterior to the central sulcus, includes motor and pre-motor areas (brocca's area and mirror cells.) Language production and strategy. |
| Prefrontal Cortex | Most anterior part of the frontal lobe, involved in self control, strategy, cultural rules, planning, etc. |
| Spinal Cord | Part of the CNS other than the brain, 31 segments. |
| Dorsal Root vs. Ventral Root. | Part of the spinal cord where sensory input enters from body to brain vs. where motor information exits to muscles and glands. |
| Bell-Magendie Law | Law governing the direction of information flow through the spinal cord. |
| Grey Matter vs. White Matter | Areas of spinal cord and brain consisting of somas and dendrites vs mylanated axons. |
| Central Canal | Hollow space running down the inside of the spinal cord, filled with CSF. |
| Ventricals | Four hollow chambers (plus aqueducts) in brain that produce and support CSF. |
| Cerebral Spinal Fluid | Fluid produced by ventricles that supports, feeds, cleans, and cushions the brain. |
| Meninges | Three layered protective covering of the CNS consisting of the dura-mater, fluid filled arachnid-space, and pia-matter. |
| Blood-Brain Barrier | A semi-permeable barrier that controls which chemicals may enter the brain, created by closing gaps between the capillaries' endothelial cells. Only 02, CO2, fat soluble molecules may pass; glucose, etc, needs active transport. Weaker in medulla to vomit. |
| Sympathetic Nervous System | Fight or flight, prepares body for action through heart rate, blood pressure, etc. Ganglia near spinal cord, most release NE, some ACh. |
| Parasympathetic Nervous System | Relax/replenish system, AKA craniosacral system. Fosters digestion, sex. Ganglia near target organs, not as coordinated as sympathetic NS, all release ACh. |
| Parasympathetic Rebound | Extreme compensatory response of one system to extreme action of other; can lead to fainting, ulcers, voodoo death, as it tries to return you to equilibrium; can be rapid or slower. |
| Neurons | Cells in the nervous system responsible for information transfer; made up of dendrites, soma, and axon. |
| Glial Cells | Cells in the nervous system responsible for support, feeding, recycling, development, etc. |
| Ribosomes | Organelles in a cell that are the sight of protein production. |
| Mitochondria | Organelles in a cell that are the source of energy (ATP). |
| Dendrites vs. Presynaptic Terminals | Processes (branches) of a neuron that receive the incoming message vs. the ones that release the outgoing message. |
| Concentration Gradient vs. Electrical Gradient | The difference in the amount of a given chemical inside and outside of a cell vs. the difference in charge inside and outside of a cell. |
| Na+, K+, Ca++, Cl- | Symbols for four important elements in neuron functioning, including three positive ions and one negative ion. |
| Resting potential at -70 mV | Name for and amount of difference in charge inside and outside of a cell in mV in a polarized cell ready to fire. |
| Sodium-Potassium Pump | Energy-requiring pump that helps restore membrane potential after an action potential. Transports 3Na+ out for 2K+ in. |
| Action Potential | A sequence of depolarization that moves along an axon, resulting in an all or nothing release of NT. |
| Axon Hillock | The section of the neuron where action potential begins by opening the voltage-gated sodium channels. |
| Graded Potential | A greater or lesser change in the polarity of a neuron that results in a greater or lesser release of NT. Some small neurons (local neurons) communicate only with close cells, and some (eyes) react to outside stimuli. |
| Ionic vs. Electrical Conduction | Propagation of information down an axon by way of chemical gates opening and closing vs. flow of electrons (electrical current). |
| Saltatory | "Jumping" current along mylenated axons that treaty increases the rate of information flow. |
| Mylenation | Glia cells wrapping around sections of an axon to insulate it and speed its information transfer. Ogliodendrocites in CNS, Schwann Cells in PNS. Current degrades, needs to be "refreshed" in nodes. |
| Nodes of Ranvier | Small gaps in the myelin sheaths on an axon where the action potential occurs to refresh the current down the axon. |
| Multiple Sclerosis | Desease that destroys the myelin; when myelin cells die, only the nodes of ranvier are left, and thus the signal either fires very slowly or cannot fire at all and neuron dies. |
| Refractory Period | Period following an Action Potential where the neuron goes into hyperpolarization, making it difficult or impossible for the cell to fire again or the signal to travel backwards. |
| Synapse / Firing | The event where one cell releases NT and that NT effects another cell. |
| Synaptic Cleft | The small gap between cells across which NT passively floats from one neuron to the next. |
| Pre-Synaptic Neuron vs. Post-Synaptic Neuron | The cell that releases NT vs. the cell that receives the NT. |
| Presynaptic Terminal | The end of the axon from which NT is released, also called the "button" or the "end bulb." |
| Vesicles | Packets of NT released by the presynaptic neuron after an action potential. Release in the presence of Ca++. |
| Exocytosis | The release of NT into a cleft via its vesicle opening at a fusion pore at the cell membrane. |
| NT Specific Receptor Site | A site, usually on a dendrite, that is specialized for the attachment of NT. May cause that cell to then fire. |
| Excitatory (EPSP) vs. Inhibitory (IPSP) | An increase vs. a decrease in a cell's likelihood of releasing neurotransmitter. |
| Hypopolarized vs. Hyperpolarized | Less polarized vs. more polarized. |
| Summation | Cumulative effect of the activity of multiple presynaptic cells; can be temporal (cells fire in rapid succession) or spatial (cells converge on a single cell at the same time). |
| Ionotropic vs. Metabotropic | When NT has direct effect on ion channels in the postsynaptic cell (rapid, short lived) vs. indirect effects via the internal metabolic processes (slower and longer lasting). |
| Second Messenger | Chemical in postsynaptic cell involved in the energy-requiring process (including altering ion channels) triggered by NT. |
| Neurotransmitters vs. Neurotransmodulators vs. Hormones | Chemicals released by presynaptic cells that that directly effect the local postsynaptic cells vs. chemicals that travels long distance and effects many neurons vs. chemicals in the bloodstream |
| Agonist vs. Antagonist | Chemicals that act to facilitate vs. chemicals that hinder the effects of specific NTs. |
| Reuptake | Process by which NTs or their components reenter the presynaptic neuron for reuse. Recycles. |
| Acetylcholinestera | Enzyme in synaptic cleft that breaks down ACh. |
| Auto-Receptors | Site on pre-synaptic terminal that reacts to the cells own NT, usually acts to stop or decrease the cell's NT release. Negative-feedback loop by closing the Ca++ channels, typically. |
| Axoaxonic Synapses | Synapses at a presynaptic terminal that reacts to NT from another cell, excitatory or inhibitory. For ex, stimulates endorphins to block release of substance P. |
| Acetycholine (ACh), GABA, Glutamate, Seretonin (5-HT), Dopamine (DA), Norepinepherine (NE), Epinepherine, Substance P, Endorphins | Important Neurotransmitters |
| Testosterone, Estrogen, Oxytocin, Insulin, Cortisol, Adrenalin | Important Hormones |
| Ectoderm | In a new embryo, the outermost layer of cells that eventually becomes the nervous system and skin. |
| Dorsal Ectoderm, Neural Plate | In the growing and now worm-like embryo, the surface along the back that thickens and hardens. Beginning of the nervous system. |
| Neural Folds | A pair of ridges all along the neural plate that begin to curl towards each other and eventually fuse. |
| Neural Tube | The long hollow tube that is created when the neural fold meets and fuses; inside begins the CNS (ventricles and central canal). |
| Neural Crest | Outer surface of the neural folds that break off and become the PNS. |
| Spina Bifida | A pathological condition where the neural folds fail to come together and fuse completely, resulting in birth defects or death. |
| Ventricular Zone | Inside the hollow core of the embryo, source of cells in the NS. |
| Stem Cells | The original type of cells in the ventricular zone that undergo division to populate the nervous system. |
| Proliferation | General term for cell division or the production of new cells. |
| Symmetrical vs. Asymmetrical | Cell division that produces two identical offspring (first 7 weeks) vs. division that produces one identical and one new neuron or glial cell (lasts about 3 months). |
| Migration | The movement of cells from their place of origin to their later position. Some "crawl" along radial glia aided by glycoproteins, others follow chemical trail set by glial cells or other neurons. |
| Radial Glia | An early type of glial cell that extends its processes out like wheel spokes for the developing neurons to move along. |
| Synaptogenesis | The process by which neurons form new connections. |
| Growth Cone (w/ filopodia) | The specialized tip of a growing axon that detects the chemicals that guide its path during migration. |
| Guidepost Cells | Glial cells that are positioned to direct growing axons towards their target cells. |
| Neurotrophins | Chemical that attract or repel axon growth, help prevent cell death, and/or promote axonal branching. |
| Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) | A type of neurotrophin from muscles and organs that promotes survival and growth of axons in the brain and sympathetic NS. |
| Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) | A type of neurotrophin that promotes axon survival and later axonal branching in the CNS. |
| Apoptosis | Cell death as determined by suicide genes that cause neurons to package their contents (for recycling) and destroy themselves. Cells that don't make connections die; helps assure proper and stronger connections. |
| Collateral Sprouts | Newly formed axonal branches that replaces another (that has died off) at a synapse. Take over to monopolize cell activity and prevent new cell connections to make sure the connection is strong (and correct). |
| Dendrites / Dendritic Spikes | New outgrowth on, or subdividing of, the processes that receive NT in response to an enriched environment, learning, etc. Continues throughout entire life. |
| Cells that Fire Together, Wire Together | A mnemonic for the rule that co-activated cells tend to be strengthened in their connectivity and out-compete neighboring cells. |
| Topographic Map | Spacial relationships represented along a receptor surface in the brain, such as the somatosensory cortex. |
| Golgi, Nissl, and Weigert Staining | Three types of neuronal stains that are injected live but then examined postmortem in brain tissue slices. |
| Lesions | Creating or exploiting brain damage in specific areas to determine if that area is necessary to a certain function. Usually postmortem. |
| Electrical Stimulation | Method used to generate, for example, the Penfield Map of somatosensory cortex in live patients. Invasive. |
| Spatial Resolution | Do all three of staining, lesions, and electrical stimulation provide good spatial or temporal resolution? |
| Lesions and Electrical Stimulation | Of staining, lesions, or electrical stimulation, which yields information on brain function? |
| Single-Cell Recording | Records activity using a micro-electrode probe in an active subject. |
| EEG | Uses an electrode cap to detect the electrical dipoles generated by changing electrical potentials. |
| Summation | Does EEG record localized changes in the electrical activity of the patient or the summation of changes across thousands of neurons? |
| ERP | The time-locked average of many EEG trials to factor out other brain activity and focus on a particular response. Shows reaction to stimulus (ex, N400 for language processing or P200 for visual attention, P300 for surprise) |
| MEG | Detects naturally occurring changes in magnetic fields created by brain activity (complementary to EEG). |
| Magneto-Encephalogram | Device used to measure extremely weak magnetic fields, such as those pro ducted by brain activity. |
| MEG | Of single-cell recording, EEG, ERP, or MEG, which requires the subject to be in a large apparatus? |
| Single-Cell Recording | Of single-cell recording, EEG, ERP, or MEG, which is the only one with poor temporal resolution? |
| Single-Cell Recording | Of single-cell recording, EEG, ERP, or MEG, which has the best spatial resolution? |
| MEG | Of single-cell recording, EEG, ERP, or MEG, which is the most expensive? |
| Resonance | Aspect of MRI that involves using the pulse of radio waves to make hydrogen protons gyrate in the body's fluid. |
| Magnetic | Aspect of MRI that involves aligning the magnetic fields of the gyrating protons. |
| Imaging | Aspect of MRI that involves the release of energy when the protons are allowed to return to their natural alignment |
| Alzheimers and Multiple Sclerosis | Neurological diseases revealed by the MRI's capacity to distinguish white from grey matter. |
| fMRI | Technique that makes use of the difference in how oxygenated vs deoxygenated hemoglobin in blood respond to magnetic fields. |
| Nonactive | Is deactivated hemoglobin more likely to be found in active or nonactive sites in the brain? |
| Functional | What does the "f" in fMRI stand for? |
| PET | Patient is injected with radioactive fluid that is absorbed with glucose into active cells and detected as gamma emissions. |
| CAT/CT Scan | Technique using 2-D x-rays of tissues that vary in how deeply the x-rays penetrate to build up 3-D images. |
| MRI, fMRI, PET, CAT | Order of MRI, fMRI, PET, or CAT scanning techniques, best to worst, for detail resolution. |
| CAT, MRI/fMRI, PET | Order of MRI, fMRI, PET, CAT techniques, lowest to highest, for cost. |
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