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PSYC 225
Chapter 1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| science of human development | seeks to understand how and why people change over time |
| steps of the scientific method | 1) begin with curiosity (ask question) 2) develop a hypothesis 3) test the hypothesis 4) draw conclusions 5) report the results 6) repeat! |
| step 1 of the scientific method | explore theory, prior research, or personal observations to explore a question |
| step 2 of the scientific method | shape the question into a hypothesis that can be tested |
| step 3 of the scientific method | design and conduct research to gather empirical evidence (data) |
| step 4 of the scientific method | use the evidence to support or refute the hypothesis |
| report the results | share the data, conclusions, and alternative explanations |
| scientific method | a way to answer questions that requires empirical research and data-based conclusions |
| hypothesis | a specific prediction that can be tested |
| empirical evidence | evidence based on data from scientific observation or experiments; not theoretical |
| replication | the repetition of a study, using different participants |
| nature | a general term for the traits, capacities, and limitations that each individual inherits genetically from his or her parents at the moment of conception |
| nurture | a general term for all the environmental influences that affect development after an individual is conceived |
| epigenetics | a science that explores the many ways environmental forces alter genetic expression |
| sudden infant death syndrome | the term used to describe an infant's unexpected death; when a seemingly healthy baby, usually between 2 and 6 months old, suddenly stops breathing and dies unexpectedly while asleep (used to illustrate the use of the scientific method) |
| life-span perspective | an approach to the study of human development that takes into account all phases of life, not just childhood or adulthood |
| critical period | a time when a particular type of developmental growth (in body or behavior) must happen if it is ever going to happen |
| sensitive period | a time when a certain type of development is most likely to happen or happens most easily, although it may still happen later with more difficulty (i.e. language learning) |
| development is multidirectional | multiple changes, in every direction, characterize the lifespan |
| development is multicontextual | development takes place within many contexts, including physical surroundings (climate, noise population density, etc.) and family configurations (married, couple, single parent, cohabitating couple, extended family, etc.) |
| ecological-systems approach (aka bioecological system) | the view that in the study of human development, the person should be considered in all the contexts and interactions that constitute a life (Bronfenbrenner) |
| microsystems | each person's immediate surroundings (i.e. family and peer group) |
| exosystems | local institutions such as school and church |
| macrosystems | the larger social setting, including cultural values, economic policies, and political processes |
| chronosystem | "time system" - historical conditions |
| mesosystem | consisted of the connections among the other systems |
| cohort | a group defined by the shared age of its members, who, because they were born at about the same time, move through life together, experiencing the same historical events and cultural shifts |
| socioeconomic status (SES) | a person's position in society as determined by income, wealth, occupation, education, and place of residence (sometimes called social class) |
| culture | a system of shared beliefs, norms, behaviors, and expectations that persist over time and prescribe social behavior and assumptions |
| social construction | an idea that is based on shared perceptions, not on objective reality. Many age-related terms such as childhood, adolescence, yuppie, and senior citizens are examples of these |
| difference-equals deficit error | the mistaken belief that a deviation from some norm is necessarily inferior to behavior or characteristics that meet the standard |
| ethnic group | people whose ancestors were born in the same region and who often share a language, culture, and religion |
| race | a group of people regarded as distinct from other groups on the basis of appearance, typically skin color. Social scientists think race is a misleading concept, as biological differences are not signified by outward appearance |
| epigenetic | referring to the effects of environmental forces on the expression of an individual's, or a species', genetic inheritance |
| dynamic-systems approach | a view of human development as an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between a person's physical and emotional being and between the person and every aspect of his or her environment, including the family and society |
| differential sensitivity | the idea that some people are more vulnerable than others are to certain experiences, usually because of genetic differences |
| developmental theory | a group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations that interpret and illuminate the thousands of observations that have been made about human growth. A developmental theory provides a framework for explaining the patterns and problems of development. |
| psychoanalytic theory | a theory of human development that holds that irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behavior |
| behaviorism | a theory of human development that studies observable behavior. This is also called learning theory because it describes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned |
| conditioning | according to behaviorism, the processes by which responses become linked to particular stimuli and learning takes place. It emphasizes the importance of repeated practice, as when an athlete works the body to perform well by training for a long time |
| classical conditioning (aka respondent conditioning) | a learning process in which a meaningful stimulus (such as the smell of food to a hungry animal) gradually comes to be connected with a neural stimulus (such as a particular sound) that had no special meaning before the learning process |
| operant conditioning (aka instrumental conditioning) | a learning process in which a particular action is followed either by something desired (which makes the person or animal likely to repeat the action) or by something unwanted (which makes the action less likely to be repeated) |
| reinforcement | a technique for conditioning a particular behavior in which that behavior is followed by something desired, such as food for a hungry animal or a welcoming smile for a lonely person |
| social learning theory | an extension of behaviorism that emphasizes that other people influence each person's behavior. The theory's basic principle is that even without specific reinforcement, every individual learns many things through observation and imitation of others |
| cognitive theory | a theory of human development that focuses on changes in how people think over time. According to the theory, our thoughts shape our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors |
| humanism | a theory that stresses the potential of all human beings for good and the belief that all people have the same basic need, regardless of culture, gender, or background |
| scientific observation | a method of testing a hypothesis by unobtrusively watching and recording participants' behavior in a systematic and objective manner - in a natural setting, in a laboratory, or in searches of archival data |
| experiment | a research method in which the researcher tries to determine the cause-and-effect relationship between two variables by manipulating one (independent variable) and then observing and recording the ensuing changes in the other (dependent variable) |
| independent variable | in an experiment, the variable that is introduced to see what effect it has on the dependent variable (aka experimental variable) |
| dependent variable | in an experiment, the variable that may change as a result of whatever new condition or situation the experimenter adds. In other this depends on the independent variable |
| survey | a research method in which information is collected from a large number of people by interviews, written questionnaires, or some other means |
| case study | an in-depth study of one person, usually requiring personal interviews to collect background information and various follow-up discussions, tests, questionnaires, and so on |
| cross-sectional research | a research design that compares groups of people who differ in age but are similar in other important characteristics |
| longitudinal research | a research design in which the same individuals are followed over time and their development is repeatedly assessed |
| cross-sequential research (aka cohort-sequential research or time-sequential research) | a hybrid research design in which researchers first study several groups of people of different ages (a cross-sectional approach) and then follow those groups over the years (a longitudinal approach) |
| correlation | a number that indicates the degree of relationship between two variables expressed in terms of the likelihood that one variable will (or will not) occur when the other variable does (or does not). Only indicates that the two variables are related |
| quantitative research | research that provides data that can be expressed with numbers, such as ranks or scales |
| qualitative research | research that considers qualities instead of quantities. Descriptions of particular conditions and participants' expressed ideas are often part of qualitative studies |
Created by:
Nicolekr
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