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GEL107
MIDTERM #2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Ways species evolve (2) | 1. Cladogenesis 2. Anagenesis |
| Cladogenesis | Simple divergence of a population |
| Anagenesis | Shift mode: have some sort of barrier and become reproductively isolated from one another. |
| Purposes of Classification (2) | 1. Organize diversity of life 2. Give organism scientific name |
| Phylogenetic Systematics (2) | 1. Cladograms 2. Evolutionary trees Way of organizing evolutionary history, studies patterns of relationships |
| Cladograms | - Maps distributions of CHARACTERS among taxa |
| Clades | - Chosen group that includes all descendants from single common ancestor. (monophyletic) |
| Monophyletic group | Ancestor and all of it's descendants |
| Sister group | 2 groups that share a most common ancestor |
| Paraphyletic Group | Character chosen includes some but not all of the descendants from a RECENT common ancestor (DINOS ARE PARAPHYLETIC BECAUSE THEY INCLUDE BIRDS) |
| Polyphyletic Group | Character chosen includes some but not all of the descendants from a MORE DISTANT common ancestor |
| Evolutionary Trees | Cladograms with the added dimension of time |
| Ways to describe CHARACTERS (3) | 1. Polarity 2. Homology 3. Analogy |
| Polarity (2) | 1. Pleisiomorphic: primitive, ancestral, more general (FINS) 2. Apomorphic: derived, more specific (LIMBS) |
| Homology | Characters in 2 separate organisms that share common ancestry (derived at same time) |
| Analogy | Characters that seems similar, but are not derived from the same ancestor. |
| Analogous Characters can appear through: (3) | 1. Convergence 2. Parallelism 3. Reversal |
| Steps to Hypothesizing Phylogenetic Relationships: (5) | 1. Choose group 2. Select characters 3. Point of reference (polarity: primitive or derived) 4. Parsimony: max likelihood (most simple) 5. Computer: phylogenetic analysis |
| Pros and cons of Phylogenetic Analysis BASED ON MORPHOLOGY: | Pros: tangible, easy to observe, can relate organism to envoronment Cons: we don't know about morphological rates of evolution, also, less "characters" than in the length of DNA |
| Pros and cons of Phylogenetic Analysis BASED ON GENETIC VARIABILITY (DNA) | Pros: 4 bases- and lots of different combinations of the 4 bases-easier to analyze Cons: difficult to relate environment: purely genetic analysis. |
| What information do LIVING organisms provide? (5) | genetic info, morphology, development, behavior, environment (only over short time- aka lifetime) |
| What information do FOSSIL organisms provide? (5) | morphology, some environment, BUT VERY LITTLE: DNA, behavior (trace), development (accretion).. (but over a very long span of time) |
| Homeoplasic/ Convergent Evolution | Character arose separately in both organisms |
| What do classifications focus on? | Classifications tend to focus on differences between the organisms. |
| What does phylogeny focus on? | Phylogeny tends to focus on the similarities between organisms (due to common ancestry) |
| Crown group: | Ancestor of all living descendants of groups. (can include fossils/extinct groups as long as there are still living group included) |
| Synapomorphy | Shared derived feature. |
| How do we determine polarity? | Choose an out-group ( an organism/ group of organisms that are unlikely to have many shared features with the organisms in question) |
| Rate of mutation is _____ throughout evolution. | Constant. |
| Crocodile experiment: | Chose hypothesis where morphology decided the relationships rather than DNA (molecules). |
| Adaptation arises from _______. | Natural selection |
| Adaptation (2) | 1. Non-Hereditary (acclimation) 2. Hereditary |
| Non- Hereditary Adaptation | Not involving passing of genes. (ex: humans living at a high elevation avoid lack of oxygen by producing more RBC) |
| Hereditary Adaptation | Involving passing of genes ( inherited structures are typically structures that make an organism and it's descendants more "fit") |
| Adaptation is a ______ AND a ______. | 1. Process ( forarms--> wings THROUGH adaptation) 2. State (wings ARE and adaptation for flying) |
| What does Adaptation do for us? (3) | 1. Help us understand living organisms 2. Reconstruct functional morphology 3. helpful with predicting long term mechanisms of evolution. |
| Adaptive Significance: | Saying that an adaptation is a significant one- cannot be assumed. |
| Using Functional Analysis to investigate Adaption: (3) | 1. Reconstruct behavior (what does it do?) 2. Evaluate performance (How well?) 3. Evaluate long-term evolutionary performance ( selective advantage?) |
| Pterosaur Wings: 1. What does it do? | - glide like a flying squirrel? NO. - Fly like bats? NO. - Fly like birds? More Likely. |
| Pterosaur Wings: 2. How well does it do it? | - very good slow speed soaring flyers. - if small: maneuverable - if large: more of a flap and soar thing. |
| Pterosaur Wings: 3. Selective Advantage? | - In evolution, flying reptile was advantageous at one point - Something changed making it less advantageous (which is why they went extinct) |
| Why is this statement false? "In theory, 1 structure has 1 function" | 1. 1 structure can have multiple functions 2. Multiple structures can have 1 function. |
| 3 major constraints on Morphology: (Seilacher) | 1. Phylogeny: instructions for generating that structure. 2. Adaptation: function of structure i.e. reproduction, feeding etc. 3. Growth: what is it made of? |
| Raup's addition to constraints on Morphology (2) | 1. Ecological: what is the organism's interaction with environment? 2. Chance: random and unpredictable events have an effect on morphology |
| Prothero's addition to constraints on Morphology (4) | 1. Piggy-backing 2. Some features have no selective advantage 3. Not all features are optimal- just enough to "get by" 4. Structures have more than one function (aka: feathers- warmth, display, flight) |
| Piggy-Backing | A feature that is not adapted is correlated with something that isn't adaptive. (big thumb vs. big toe) |
| Adaptation is ____ and ____ dependent | Context, Time |
| What are we constrained by? (adaptation-wise) | 1. present morphologies 2. growth processes 3. evolved physiology 4. How we can adapt to changing conditions in the future. |
| Theoretical Morphology | Take organisms that existed and make tons of models that are similar to the organisms- but really different versions that "could have" existed. |
| Geometric parameters for modeling morphology: | 1. shape of generating curve 2. expansion rate 3. distance of aperture from axis 4. translation rate. |
| Ways to analyze PERFORMANCE of a character (3) | 1. Comparative test: compare to living ANALOGUES (pterosaurs vs. bats) 2. Design test: create a model of the character to test function 3. Phylogenetic test: comparing function in living HOMOLOGUES (pterosaurs vs birds) |
| Trilobite Vision: | Holochroal eyes: 1 image per eye Schizochroal eyes: multiple images--> create 1 image and heighten perception under water. (best design, but went extinct before Holochroal) |
| Horseshoe crabs and spines: | No spine: somersaulted Spine: Oscillated+ settle Too-long spine: Oscillated + no settle { Settling + vertical movements do not attract predators) |
| Paleoecology: | Reconstruction of ancient environments |
| Ecological Hierarchy: | Biosphere > Ecosystem > Community > Habitat |
| Bentheic Realm (6) | 1. Supra-tidal 2. Intertidal 3. Sub-tidal 4. Bathyal 5. Abyssal 6. Hadal |
| Photic Regions: (3) | 1. Supra-tidal 2. Intertidal 3. Sub-tidal |
| Aphotic Regions: (3) | 1. Bathyal 2. Abyssal 3. Hadal |
| Pelagic: | Describes the depth/water column from the bottom of the ocean to the surface |
| Planktonic: | Free-floating Zooplankton and Phytoplankton near surface of water |
| Necktonic: | Free-swimming fish scattered throughout the ocean |
| Organisms in Bethic zone can be: (2) | 1. Infaunal: dig holes underneath substrate (worms/clams) 2. Epifaunal: live above substrate |
| Infaunal/Epifaunal Organisms can be: (2) | 1. Solitary 2. Colonial |
| Epifaunal Organisms can be: (2) | 1. Sessile (fixed, no movement) 2. Vagile (movement) |
| Paleoecological Reconstructions can be done through: (4) | 1. Sedimentology 2. Geochemistry 3. Trace Fossils 4. Taphonomy |
| Sedimentology (Paleoecological Reconstruction) - (3) | 1. direction of flow 2. depth of water @sediment 3. position of shoreline |
| Geochemistry (Paleoecological Reconstruction)- (3) | 1. oxidizing/reducing conditions 2. Carbon content 3. temp dependent (16-O and 18-O isotopes) |
| Trace Fossils (Paleoecological Reconstruction) | 1. size of organisms 2. direction of travel 3. interactions between organisms (unaffected by diagenesis) |
| Taphonomy of Body Fossils (Paleoecological Reconstruction) | 1. Taxonomic completeness: % of original community preserved 2. Temporal distribution: low sedimentation rate/deaths over time, or mass extinction at one time? 3. (2) refers to Time averaging vs Mass morality |
| Abiotic Limiting factors affecting distribution (5) | 1. Temperature 2. Oxygen level (aerobic, dysaerobic, anaerobic) 3. Salinity level (stenoline: need consistent salinity, eurkaline: can live in harsh salinity) 4. Depth 5. Substrate (hard vs soft) |
| Biotic Limiting Factors affecting distribution (3) | 1. Predation 2. Competition 3. Mutualism |
| General categories of food web: (3) | 1. primary producers 2. Consumers 4. decomposers |
| Carbon Isotopes: | 12 -C is most abundant, is preferentially taken up into organic matter and then is released when the organism dies. (other is 13-C) |
| Plants and Carbon | C-3: cool weather grasses, C-4: warm whether grasses. Can tell environment and what animals ate by their composition |
| What happens to a population when a key predator is ADDED? | The population # goes DOWN |
| What happens to a population when a key predator is REMOVED? | The population # goes UP |
| Competition: | Usually one organism has greater reproductive success than the other. |
| Chthamaloid vs Balanoid Barnacles Hypothesis (2) | Chthamaloid live above and below Balanoid (inside predator zones) 1. Spacial restriction through Competitive Exclusion (Balanoid grows faster and pushes (C) out) 2. (C) can live where (B) cannot. They are smaller and less prone to getting attacked. |
| Competitive exclusion may act ______ to be preserved in fossil record: | Too Rapidly |
| Symbiosis | Mutual help between organisms: Zooxanthellae and Coral (Hermatypic) - Coral gets: oxygen, nutrients and increased rate of growth - (Z) gets: Shelter, nitrogen and CO2. |
| Difference between Ahermatypic and Hermatypic Coral: | Ahermatypic (white) needs nutrient rich environment because it does not have the same symbiosis that hermatypic has with algea. (Can live in dark) |
| Paleobiogeography (2) | 1. Ecological biogeography: geographic distribution of organisms today 2. Historical Biogeography: how organisms go to be where they are today. |
| Regional Distribution of Organisms: (3) | 1. Cosmopolitan: world-wide 2. Endemic: single region (usually young and primitive) 3. Disjuct: in two or more regions- now separated. |
| MODERN Controls on Geographic distribution:(Ecological biogeography) (2) | 1. Atmospheric+ oceanic circulation 2. Climate and continental position |
| Atmospheric and Oceanic Distribution (modern controls) | 1. earth rotates on inclined axis (seasons) 2. light/heat from sun varies throughout year 3. Wind determines oceanic circulation 4. Gyres |
| Gyres (3) | 3 main circulating ocean currents 1. trade winds 2. westerlies 3. easterlies |
| Climate and continental Position (modern controls) | 1. continents get in the way of oceanic circulation 2. continental size affects circulation (may explain biomes and provinces |
| Features of Historical Biogeography: (4) | 1. Dispersal 2. Body Size 3. Barriers 4. Corridors |
| Dispersal | Explains distribution of organisms today--> can be from active or passive movement of organisms. |
| 2 primary mechanisms to account for current biogeographic distribution: | 1. Dispersal 2. Vicariance |
| MARINE Body size and dispersal: | 1. vertebrates disperse as adults 2. invertebrates disperse as gametes or larvae 3. protists/microorganisms have broader geographic range because of tiny body size. |
| Marine Invertebrate Larvae: (3) | 1. Lecithotrophic (non-feeding)- limited dispersal capabilities 2. Planktotrophic: excellent dispersal capabilities 3. Brooders: crawl from parents- low dispersal capabilities. |
| TERRESTRIAL body size and dispersal: | 1. vertebrates: babies don;t move, adults do (large body size is an advantage) 2. Invertebrates: small--> dispersed actively or passively (by wind) 3. Plants: adults don't move, spores and seeds do. |
| Barriers: | - Limits dispersal - can be physiological, physical, ecological - can change over lifetime and geological time. |
| Corridors: | UNobstructed routes of dispersal (terrestrial) - organism has center of origin, but then expands to create new colonies and habitats. |
| Explanation for disjunct distributions (explained by plate tectonics) (2) | 1. some regions now far apart were populated when they were together 2. some regions now together were populated when they were far apart. |
| Structure of Earth: (surface to center) (3) | 1. Crust (oceanic, continental) 2. Mantle 3. Core |
| Crust of Earth (2) | 1. oceanic (dense) 2. Continental (less dense, and generally brittle) |
| Where are heat driven convection cells? | Mantle. |
| Plate tectonics | - describes large-range motions of earth's lithosphere - Built on the idea of continental drift. - explanation for disjunct distributions |
| What do convection cells do? | Drive movement of the plates. |
| Ridge push: | 2 plates pushed together (mountains) |
| Fault: | Break in crust where movement occurs |
| Slab pull | edge of plate being pushed toward core of earth. |
| Plate interaction (3) | 1. Spreading 2. Subduction 4. Transformation |
| Transformation (Plate interaction) | sliding action between plates |
| Spreading (Plate interaction) | occurs from DIVERGENT movements- new material is made |
| Subduction (Plate interaction) | Subduction zones (trenches) are formed by this CONVERGENT process- old material is being destroyed. |
| You see a _____ at subduction zones | Slab pull |
| Vicariance Biogeography | - idea that as continents move, they move organisms and fossils with them. Large areas fragment into small areas, small areas together for large areas. |
| Types of Vicariance biogeography: (3) | 1. Noah's Ark 2. Beached viking funeral ship 3. Escalator Hopscotch |
| Noah's Arc (Vicariance biogeography) | LIVING organisms are carried passively with the land |
| Beached Viking Funeral Ship (Vicariance biogeography) | FOSSIL organisms are carried passively with land |
| Escalator Hopscotch (Vicariance biogeography) | LIVING organisms can "hop" from one island to the next. |
| Steps to conducting analysis of vicariance biogeography: (4) | 1.conduct phylogenetic anaylsis 2. Make a branching pattern of AREA relationships 3. Test area for other organisms 4. investigate non-biological events that produce a similar pattern |
| -larger regions support and maintain _____ species | MORE |
| - smaller regions support and maintain _____ organisms | FEWER |
| What can splitting of the continents cause? | - Geographic isolation (allopatry) - habitat diversity |
| Highest species diversity will be generated at times when continents are ____ fragmented. | MOST (tectonic fragmentation and species diversity) |
| Great American Biotic Exchange! | North and South America wasn't always connected my isthmus. Before- water was a barrier for terrestrial and a corridor for marine. With the isthmus, it is a corridor for terrestrial and a barrier for marine animals. |
| Migration across the isthmus was asymmetrical. More moved _____ than _____, and many _____ organisms became extinct. | South, North. Southern. |
| Plantotrophs (feeding larvae) Life Span Time | Long time (weeks to months) |
| Plantotrophs (feeding larvae) Dispersal Capabilities | Excellent (more time to disperse) |
| Plantotrophs (feeding larvae) Geographic Ranges | Broader (due to excellent dispersal) |
| Plantotrophs (feeding larvae) Stratigraphic ranges | Longer (seen in sediment layers longer) |
| Plantotrophs (feeding larvae) Speciation Rates | Lower (less generations, less opportunities for mutation) |
| Non-Plantotrophs (non-feeding larvae) Life Span Time | Short time (hours to days) |
| Non-Plantotrophs (non-feeding larvae) Dispersal Capabilities | Limited (less time to actually disperse) |
| Non-Plantotrophs (non-feeding larvae) Geographic Ranges | Narrower (due to limited dispersal) |
| Non-Plantotrophs (non-feeding larvae) Stratigraphic Ranges | Shorter (each species/minor change in morphology appears for a shorter time because of short lifespan, and higher rate of possible mutation) |
| Non-Plantotrophs (non-feeding larvae) Speciation Rates | Higher (more generations, more opportunities for mutation) |
Created by:
omygoodnessalex
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