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MCB 32
Full Class
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Epithelial Tissue | Continuous layer of cells separating fluids and vessels |
| Exocrine Glands | Epithelial glands which secrete product to external enviroment |
| Endocrine Glands | Epithelial glands which secrete hormones into the blood stream |
| Apical and Basolateral | Two distinct sides of the cell (Apical faces lumen; basolateral faces outside) |
| Desmosomes | Hold cells together under stress |
| Catabolic Reaction | Breaking down of larger molecules into smaller ones |
| Anabolic Reaction | Production of larger molecules |
| Allosteric Regulation | Activation/inhibition of enzyme by changing its shape |
| Primary Transport | Uses ATP to transport substances |
| Secondary Transport | Couples flow of one substance down its concentration gradient to another going up its gradient |
| Paracrine | Diffuses locally and acts on a neighboring cell |
| Metabotropic receptors | Receptors which function through a second messenger |
| Posterior Pituitary | Extension of neural tissue; produces vasopressin and oxytocin |
| Anterior Pituitary | Endocrine gland; prolactin and other hormones (ACTH) |
| Vasopressin (ADH) | regulates water balance in the body |
| Oxytocin | Milk, contractions, bonding (pregnancy stuff) |
| Tropic Hormones | Regulates release of other hormones |
| Cortisol Pathway | CRH (hypothalamus) stimulates anterior pituitary to produce ACTH; stimulates adrenal cortex to produce cortisol (steroid); which inhibits past pathways |
| Addison's Disease | Hypoglycemia caused by hyposecretion of cortisol |
| Cushing's Syndrome | Hyperglycemia and fatigue caused by hypersecretion of cortisol |
| Insulin | Released by beta cells in the pancreas; increases reuptake of glucose into cells |
| Glucagon | Released by alpha cells in the pancreas; stimulates breakdown of glycogen, lipids, and amino acids to produce glucose |
| Temporal Summation | Two postsynaptic graded potentials from one synapse in rapid succession can summate |
| Spatial Summation | Two postsynaptic graded potentials from nearby synapses around the same time can summate |
| Glutamate | Main excitatory neurotransmitter in CNS |
| GABA | Most common inhibitory neurotransmitter in CNS |
| Afferent Neurons | Send signals towards the CNS |
| Efferent Neurons | Send signals away from CNS |
| Interneurons | Process signals in CNS |
| White Matter | Clusters of myelinated axons in spinal cord |
| Grey Matter | Cell bodies and dendrites |
| Ganglion | Collection of cell bodies in periphery (i.e. in spinal cord) |
| Nucleus | A ganglion in the CNS |
| Meninges | Connective tissue membranes between outer bones and CNS |
| Astrocytes | Glia cells involved in the blood-brain barrier |
| Brainstem | Connects to spinal cord: Made up of Midbrain, Pons, and Medulla |
| Midbrain | Controls eye movement, sleep, etc. |
| Pons | Relay between cerebellum and cerebrum, etc. |
| Medulla | Controls blood pressure, breathing, etc. |
| Cerebellum | Involved in motor coordination and balance |
| Forebrain | Largest part of brain |
| Diencephalon | Under cortex, made up of Thalamus and Hypothalamus |
| Thalamus | Relay system for sensory info |
| Hypothalamus | Regulates homeostasis, links endocrine and neural systems |
| Cerebrum | Made up of Cerebral Cortex and Basal Ganglia |
| Cerebral Cortex | Outermost part of brain, divided into 4 lobes |
| Frontal Lobe | Reasoning, motor skills, language |
| Parietal Lobe | Kinesthetics, pain, somatosensory cortex |
| Temporal Lobe | Hearing, memory, speech |
| Occipital Lobe | Vision, colors, word recognition |
| Limbic System | Learning, memory formation, emotions |
| Nociceptors | Receptors involved with pain and discomfort |
| Receptive Field | Area over which a stimulus will produce a response in a specific neuron |
| Gate-control Theory | Touch and pain can interact in terms of reception |
| Autonomic Nervous System | Controls subconscious functions of the body |
| Parasympathetic Nervous System | Controls the body at rest (metabolism, etc) |
| Sympathetic Nervous System | Prepares body for stress; danger. |
| Preganglionic Neuron | Connect CNS to autonomic ganglion |
| Postganglionic Neuron | Connect to target tissue |
| Sympathetic Chain | Ganglia linked parallel to spinal cord; causes widespread sympathetic effect |
| Vagus Nerve | Contains most of the cranial preganglionic nerves |
| ANS Sympathetic Neurotransmission | ACh targets nicotinic receptors; followed by Norepinephrine binding adrenergic receptors |
| ANS Parasympathetic Neurotransmission | ACh targets nicotinic receptors; followed by ACh targetting muscarinic receptors |
| Varicosities | “boutons;” enlargements in axon where synapses connect to targets (motor end plate) |
| Effect of Cocaine | Blocks reuptake of Norepinephrine; continually triggers sympathetic systems |
| Adrenal Medulla | Sympathetic neuroendocrine tissue; “modified sympathetic ganglion”; secretes epinephrine |
| Chromaffin Cells | Secrete epinephrine into blood; causes general alarm signal |
| Somatic Motor System | Consciously controls skeletal muscle; only one neuron between system and muscle fibers |
| Motor Unit | Collection of a motor neuron plus all the associated muscle fibers |
| Neuromuscular Junction | Synapse between motor neuron and muscle fiber |
| Curare | Natural toxin native in South America; antagonist of ACh receptors |
| Botulinum Toxin | Cleaves a motor neuron protein involved in vesicle release; which paralyzes muscles |
| Nerve Gases | Inhibit acetylcholinesterase; i.e. sarin |
| Reflex | Automatic involuntary spinal cord action in response to a sensory stimulus; doesn't use brain |
| Muscle Spindle | Senses lengthening of muscle and sends signal to the spinal cord; may in turn (through SC) activate counteracting muscle |
| Monosynaptic Reflex | Muscle circuit involving only one synapse |
| Patellar Stretch Reflex | Patellar tendon is tapped; knee jerks automatically |
| Skeletal Muscle Tissue | Striated; attached to bones and controls movement (somatic peripheral system) |
| Cardiac Muscle Tissue | Striated; runs heart. Controlled by autonomic system and hormones |
| Smooth Muscle Tissue | Smooth; involved in organs/tubes/motion. Controlled by autonomic system and hormones. |
| Tendons | Connect muscles to bones. Made out of collagen |
| Fascicles | Bundles of muscle fibers |
| Sarcolemma | Muscle fiber membrane |
| Sarcoplasm | Muscle fiber cytoplasm |
| Sarcoplasmic Reticulum | Muscle fiber ER |
| Sarcomere | A unit of actin and myosin – actually contracts muscle fibers |
| Myofibril | A repeating arrangement of muscle fibers and proteins |
| T-tubules | Long tubes in sarcolemma; conducts action potential to center of muscle fiber |
| Actin | Remember – composed of two F-actin fibers wrapped around each other |
| Inactivation of muscle | Tropomyosin wraps around actin and prevents myosin binding; troponin positions tropomyosin – on or off, by situation |
| Crossbridges | Where myosin heads bind actin |
| Sliding filament model | Myosin heads walk along actin filaments; bringing sarcomere ends closer together |
| Excitation-contraction coupling | Motor neuron releases ACh onto muscle, opening Na channels and depolarizing muscle. AP travels down T-tubule into interior; causes Ca2+ channel opening in SR. Ca floods cytoplasm and activates troponin; allowing contraction |
| Twitch | When a muscle cell responds to a single AP |
| Summation (muscular) | Occurs if a muscle fiber is stimulated continually – Ca2+ won't be pumped back into SR |
| Tetanus | Muscle doesn't relax at all – sustained maximal contraction |
| Recruitment | As more motor units are recruited, the muscle will generate much larger force |
| Muscle Fiber Types | Slow Oxidative (Type I); Fast Oxidative (Type IIA); Fast Glycolytic (Type IIB) |
| Type I Muscle Fiber | Slow Oxidative – Red due to stored oxygen in myoglobin; small and fatigue resistant |
| Type IIA Muscle Fiber | Fast Oxidative – Red due to stored oxygen in myoglobin; medium sized and fatigues moderately |
| Type IIB Muscle Fiber | Fast Glycolytic – White due to lack of myoglobin; large and fatigues quickly |
| Flexor | Muscle responsible for bringing bones closer |
| Extensor | Muscle responsible for moving bones away from each other |
| Proprioceptors | Sensory neurons in muscle |
| Golgi tendon organ | Proprioceptor wrapped around connective tissue in tendon – helps protect from muscle tear/damage |
| Portal System | Dumps blood from one capillary directly into another without it being redistributed by the heart |
| Diffusion | Random movement of molecules in solution. Only effective over short distances |
| Bulk Flow | Circulatory system's transfer of blood to capillaries in tissues |
| Diffusional Exchange | Transfer of gases and nutrients in capillaries (short distances, large surface area) |
| Pulmonary Circulation | Carries blood to lungs to be oxygenated; brings this back to heart |
| Systemic Circulation | Carries oxygenated blood to other parts of the body, brings deoxygenated blood back |
| Arteries | Large branching vessels that conduct blood away from the heart; elastic smooth muscle can withstand high pressure |
| Atherosclerosis | Depositing of plaque in arteries; can lead to ruptures |
| Veins | Large converging vessels that conduct blood to the heart; then flexible walls leave resistance relatively low |
| Arterioles | Use variable pressure to control blood pressure (total flow remains the same) |
| Blood flow, by vessel | Heart > Arteries > Arterioles > Capillaries > Venules > Veins |
| Series Arrangement | Whole CV system. LH > systemic > RH > Pulmonary > LH |
| Parallel Arrangement | Both pulmonary and systemic circuits run in parallel branches; allows independent regulation |
| Poisseuille's Law | Flow is equal to the pressure difference divided by the resistance (NOT absolute P) |
| Total Blood Flow | 5 L/min (both circuits) |
| Resistance | Dependent on viscosity, length, and radius; first two are ignored. Resistance is inversely proportional to radius |
| Aorta | Main artery, provides oxygenated blood to systemic circulation. Comes from left ventricle |
| Systole | Valves close, heart contracts and empties, generating pressure |
| Diastole | Valves open, heart relaxes and fills |
| Cardiac Output | Equal to stroke volume multiplied by heart beat rate (may increase up to 5x when exercising) |
| Cardiac Muscle | Mononucleated and branched with intercalated disks |
| Gap Junctions | Provide electrical continuity between cells |
| Pacemaker cell | Measures action potentials in order to measure heart contraction frequency |
| Cardiac refractory period | Extra long (almost as long as the twitch) which helps prevent tetanus |
| Continual circulatory flow | Arterial pressure from stretching is used to drive blood when ventricular pressure is zero |
| Single-unit smooth muscle | Gap junctions allow contraction as a single unit |
| Multi-unit smooth muscle | Fewer gap junctions; independent contractions allow precise control of multiple units |
| Muscle contractions (Fastest > Slowest) | Skeletal > Cardiac > Smooth |
| Hypertension | High blood pressure due to increased resistance; Heart must contract harder |
| Effects of exercise | CO is increased 4-fold, increasing pressure and thus a drop in resistance |
| Capillary Sphincter | When relaxed, allows nutrients/waste to travel between capillaries and tissue cells |
| Fluid Capillary Transport | Depends on osmotic pressure and blood pressure |
| Lymphatic System | Collects excess tissue fluid; returns it to blood in the veins |
| Swollen feet, ankles or other body parts | Caused by blocked lymphatics or circulation |
| Distribution of blood by volume | 60% in veins, 15% in arteries, 12 in pulmonary blood vessels, 8% in heart, 5% in capillaries |
| Skeletal Muscle Pump | Valves which assure one-way flow from lower extremities to the heart |
| Sympathetic Nerves | Use (nor)/epinephrine to increase blood pressure, stroke volume, and cardiac output |
| Parasympathetic Nerves | Use acetylcholine to slow APs and heart rate; little effect on ventricle contractions |
| Valsalva Maneuver | (Anti-homeostasis) Forceful exhalation against a closed airway; reduces blood flow (veins/brain), CO |
| Starling Curve | Changes in end-diastolic volume (increased venous return) increases stroke volume |
| Autonomic Arteriole Regulation | Sympathetic nerves constrict most arterioles to increase blood flow to others |
| Metabolic Arteriole Regulation | Constricts or dilates arterioles to regulate metabolic activity (also capillaries) |
| Circulatory Homeostasis | During exercise, muscle/respiratory pumps increase venous return to maintain homeostasis |
| Arterial Baroreceptors | Detect changes in arterial pressure (through AP frequency) and send to CV control center |
| HBR | Heart Rate |
| SV | Stroke Volume |
| CO | Cardiac Output (HBR * SV) |
| TPR | Total Peripheral Resistance |
| MAP | Mean Arterial Pressure (CO * TPR) |
| Fick's Law of Diffusion | Flux of solute is proportional to Area * Concentration / Distance |
| Bulk Flow | Refers to the blood circulation and breathing; dependent on differences in pressure and vessel resistance |
| Cystic Fibrosis | Lack of a protein regulating mucus etc; leads to trouble breathing, digestive problems, sweat etc. |
| Pleural sacs/fluid | Attach lung to the chest wall; facilitating air flow in and out of lung |
| Respiratory Inspiration | Diaphragm contracts, ribs and chest (thoracic cavity) expand; drawing in air |
| Respiratory Expiration | Diaphragm relaxes; ribs and chest (thoracic cavity) contract; expelling air |
| Pneumothorax | Seal of chest cavity is broken; lungs aren't bound by pleural fluid so they gradually collapse |
| Boyle's Law | P1V1 = P2V2 (explains how air flows into and out of lungs) |
| O2 Distribution | About 20% is used, the rest is kept in storage (excess capacity) |
| Pulmonary Capillaries | Located in walls of alveoli; large alveolar surface area and thin membrane allow exchange within 1 second |
| Pneumonia | Excess fluid in alveoli increases distance and decreases diffusion; results in less O2 to blood and tissues |
| Forces Opposing Muscle Work in Breathing | Tissue resistance of chest wall; Airway resistance; compliance of lungs (∆V/∆P) |
| Surface Tension | Tension of water in alveoli increases work of breathing |
| Surfactant | Compound that lowers surface tension and pressure, making breathing easier (useful for babies/sick people) |
| Hemoglobin | Protein in red blood cells that binds and transports O2 (high affinity for CO => toxicity); 4 hemes and 4 globins each |
| Hemoglobin effects on diffusion | Hb-bound O2 is different from free O2, so bound O2 increases O2 release, vice versa and etc. |
| Bicarbonate ion | HCO3-, method of transporting CO2 in the plasma. Released by pancreas in response to acid from stomach |
| S-shaped Hb Curve | Allows maintenance of homeostatic O2 levels, despite acidity/temperature/etc. (increases binding) |
| Red hands/extremities | May be due to cold or CO poisoning; bound Hb is visibly red |
| Hematocrit | Percentage of RBC per blood volume; proportional to O2/CO2 capacity |
| Erythropoietin (epo) | Increases/involved in RBC production |
| Blood Doping | Transfusion of RBC or epo to increase hematocrit and thus O2 capacity |
| Carbonic Anhydrase | Catalyzes the reaction between CO2 and HCO3-; similar effects to Hb |
| Functions of the Urinary System | Regulate plasma composition; remove waste products/toxins from bloodstream |
| Nitrogenous Wastes | Ammonia (soluble, toxic); Uric acid (insoluble); Urea (soluble, non-toxic) |
| Kidney Functions | Filter blood, reabsorb nutrients and >99% of water; secrete and excrete toxins in urine |
| Kidney Dialysis | Removal of waste by diffusion equilibration across dialysis membrane |
| Ureters | Transport urine from kidneys to bladder |
| Bladder | Stores urine |
| Urethra | Excrete urine from bladder to outside of the body |
| Nephron | Functional unit of the kidney: Consists of Bowman's capsule, its associated tubules, and a loop of Henle |
| Afferent Arteriole | Carries blood to the glomerulus |
| Efferent Arteriole | Carries blood away from the glomerulus |
| Renal Corpuscle | The unit consisting of Bowman's capsule and glomerulus; first step of filtration |
| Bowman's Capsule | First step in filtration of blood to urine; contains glomerulus enclosed in a sac |
| Glomerulus | A cluster of capillaries that carry out the first step of filtration, filtrate passes through Bowman's to the DCT |
| Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT) | Reabsorbs all nutrients, most ions and water; some toxin secretion (all passive/obligatory) |
| Loop of Henle | Connects PCT to DCT; maintains osmotic pressure in the nephron |
| Vasa Recta | Straight capillaries that run parallel to the loop of Henle; allow reabsorption of ions and urea |
| Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT) | Reabsorbs ions and water; secretes toxins, urea, and excess ions |
| Aldosterone | Regulates reabsorption of Na and Cl ions in the DCT |
| Mechanism of Aldosterone | Increases number of Na/K pumps on basolateral membrane; opens channels on apical membrane |
| Production of Aldosterone | JGA granular cells secrete renin ---> converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin → triggers aldosterone |
| ADH | Anti-diuretic hormone; regulates reabsorption of water by opening aquaporins in principal cells |
| Regulation of ADH Release | Increased osmolarity or reduced blood pressure/volume stimulate release from hypothalamus |
| Collecting Duct | Final step of kidney reabsorption/secretion; passes urine on to the ureter |
| Renal Arteries | Carry oxygenated blood to kidney where it is continually filtered; receives about 20% of CO at rest |
| Peritubular Capillaries | Blood vessels along nephrons; allow reabsorption and secretion using gradients |
| Juxtaglomerular Apparatus (JGA) | Regulates tubule and nephron functions |
| Podocytes | Located in outer layer of glomerulus; provide selectivity through filtration (retain plasma proteins and RBCs) |
| Glomerular Filtration Forces | Primarily capillary pressure (hydrostatic and osmotic); less so Bowman's capsule pressures |
| Rate of Filtration (Bowman's) | Highly regulated; can be significantly affected by small changes in glomerular capillary pressure |
| Formula for Excretion | Filtration - resabsorption + secretion |
| Formula for Urine Volume | Glomerular Filtration - reabsorption + secretion |
| Water Distribution in the Body | 66%/33% split (28 liters in intracellular fluid; 14 liters in extracellular fluid) |
| Hyper/Hyponatremia | High/low plasma concentration of sodium ions |
| Proportion of Sodium Reabsorption | 70% in PCT; 30% in DCT |
| ACE Inhibitors | Molecules that inhibit enzymes involved in the production of aldosterone; may reduce hypertension, etc. |
| GI Pathway | Mouth > Pharynx > Esophagus > Stomach > Small Intestine > Colon/Large Intestine > Rectum > Anus |
| GI Motility | Smooth muscle contractions in GI tract helps push the food from one end to another |
| Layers of the GI Tract Wall | Mucosa, Submucosa, Muscularis Externa, Serosa |
| Mucosa | Made up of epithelial cells and connective tissue |
| Submucosa | Made up of connective tissue, blood vessels, and elements of the enteric (intestinal) nervous system |
| Muscularis Externa | Made up of circular and longitudinal smooth muscle |
| Serosa | Made of solely connective tissue |
| Accessory Glands of GI Tract | Salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas |
| Long vs Short Reflexes | Long reflexes occur through CNS while short reflexes occur locally in the GI tract |
| Cephalic Phase | Mental stimuli through CNS; thoughts of food which stimulate production of saliva, acid, mucus, and pepsinogen |
| Gastric Phase | Stomach stimuli; food in stomach stimulates long&short reflexes involving gastrin, secretes acid and pepsinogen |
| Intestinal Phase | Small intestinal stimuli; fat and protein stimulate long/short reflexes with CCK and secretin, stimulate secretions |
| Lysozyme | Enzyme in saliva that destroys bacteria |
| Salivary Amylase | Enzyme in saliva that breaks down starch |
| Secreting Cells in Gastric Pits | Neck cells, chief cells, parietal cells, G cells |
| Neck Cells | Secrete mucus |
| Chief Cells | Secrete pepsinogen |
| Parietal Cells | Secrete acid |
| G Cells | Secrete gastrin into the bloodstream |
| Acid Reflux (Heart Burn) | Stomach acid flows backwards into esophagus due to weakness/relaxing of lower esophageal sphincter |
| Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) | Frequent acid reflux; can be caused by obesity, pregnancy, smoking, medications |
| Ulcers | Erosions of GI tract lining; caused by acid/pepsin breaking down lining (can be caused by aspirin or infection) |
| Chyme | Partially digested food mixed with gastric juices (yum) |
| Duodenum | First portion of small intestine; where pancreatic enzymes and bile carry out most of digestion |
| Villi | Extensions which give the small intestine more surface area for absorption; each has capillaries and lacteals |
| Lacteals | Part of the lymphatic system; take up fat for reabsorption |
| Enterocytes | Epithelial cells of the small intestine; contains/covered by brush border |
| Brush Border | Microvilli that cover enterocytes, increase surface area to aid in absorption |
| Secretin | Triggered by HCl release; causes secretion of pancreatic bicarbonate |
| Cholecystokinin (CCK) | Triggered by proteins and fat in intestine; causes secretion of pancreatic enzymes |
| Carbohydrate Transport | Sugar transporters in the apical membrane of enterocytes use Na gradient to pump monomers into cell |
| Zymogens | Proteins/peptides are secreted as this inactive form (until the duodenum); i.e. trypsinogen or pepsinogen |
| Trypsin | Active form of protease which cleaves/activates zymogens |
| Hepatic Portal Vein | Bring amino acids and sugars to liver for detoxification on the way to the heart |
| Bile | Made by liver and stored in gallbladder; made of amphiphilic bile salts and other waste products to be eliminated |
| Emulsification | Bile helps break down fat globules into smaller droplets |
| Gallstones | Painful byproduct of excess cholesterol or insufficient bile |
| Chylomicrons | Packages of digested fatty acids; released via exocytosis and drained into blood through lacteals |
| Foxglove Digitalis | Blocks Na/K pump, causes increased urine excretion (too much can be fatal) |
| Diabetes Mellitus | Disease characterized by high blood sugar; often related to insulin problems |
| Type I Diabetes | Autoimmune; damage to beta cells causes low insulin lvels (5-10% of cases) |
| Type II Diabetes | Specific cells develop resistance to insulin (90-95% of cases); often related to obesity |
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