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PSYCH 101 (midterm)
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| psychology | the science of behavior and mental processes |
| major contributing theories of psychology | 1. science: rigorous controlled investigation of phenomenon 2. behavior: phenomenon that are manifest 3. mental processes: unobservable, not always easily articulated |
| subfields of psychology | counseling, developmental, educational, experimental, forensic, health, industrial-organizational (I/0), neuro, psychometric and quantitative, rehabilitation, school, social, and sport |
| structuralism | early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind |
| Wilhelm Wundt | * established the first psychology laboratory in Germany * identify structures of the mind - hands have most sensory receptors -research described dimensions of feeling -methodology: introspection (he was trying to figure out what you were feeling. |
| Functionalism | early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish. |
| William James | * legendary teacher-writer authored a 1890 psychology text. * identify the functions of the mind - not what your feeling, why you are *focused on interactions w/ enviro * adaptive significance "why" * flow of thought (process of decision) |
| Psychoanalytic | 1) Sigmund Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts. 2) Freud's therapeutic technique used in treating psychological disorders. (patients gain insight from their lives; dreams, resistances..) |
| Freud | * therapy * catharsis: talking about problems -> makes you feel better * unconscious process ( ex: hot vs cold coffee (warm=kind people, cold= stand offish people) |
| Classical Conditioning | type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events |
| Operant Conditioning | type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher |
| Watson | THE DEVIL. * conditioning research (little Albert experiment: white rabbit/rat/steel beam) * championed psychology as the science of behavior |
| Evolutionary Psychology | the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection |
| Charles Darwin | * proposed a theory of evolution * did tests and experiments to see how behaviors evolved in people |
| Natural Selection | the principle that among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations |
| Behaviorism | the view that psychology 1) should be an objective science that 2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with 1) but not with 2). |
| Skinner | * leading behaviorist, rejected introspection and studied how consequences shape behavior * focuses on what is observable |
| Humanistic Psychology | * historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people * emphasis on positive qualities of people * humans have possibility for growth * freedom to choose own destiny |
| Abraham Maslow | * drew attention to ways that current environmental influences can nurture or limit our growth potential * importance of having our needs for love and acceptance satisfied |
| Positive Psychology Movement | the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive. |
| operational definition | a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as "what an intelligence test measures" |
| Description/Observation | action or process of observing something or someone carefully in order to gain information |
| Case Study | an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles |
| Survey | a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes of behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group |
| Naturalistic observation | observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation |
| Correlation | a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other |
| Illusory correlation | the phenomenon of perceiving a relationship between variables (typically people, events, or behaviors) even when no such relationship exists |
| Experiment | a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable) |
| Cause and effect | noting a relationship between actions or events such that one or more are the result of the other or others. |
| Independent variables | the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied |
| dependent variables | the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable |
| Statistics | the practice or science of collecting and analyzing numerical data in large quantities |
| Mean | the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores |
| Median | the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it |
| Mode | the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution |
| Classical Conditioning: Pavlov | a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events (Pavlov w/ the dog, bell and food) |
| Operant Conditioning | a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher |
| Thorndike’s Law of Effect | principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely |
| B.F. Skinner | * insisted that external influences (not internal thoughts and feelings) shape behavior * urged people to use operant principles to influence others' behavior (said use rewards to evoke more desirable behavior) |
| Positive Reinforcement | increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcer. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response |
| Negative Reinforcement | increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response |
| Schedules of Reinforcement | fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval, continuous reinforcement |
| fixed ratio | reinforcement follows a set # of behaviors (every 5 papers graded, reward) |
| variable ratio | reinforcement follows an unpredictable # of behaviors (skittle for every 5 papers then 7, then 2 etc..) |
| fixed interval | reinforcement follows behavior that occurs after a set amount of time (after this many hours you get paid x) |
| variable interval | reinforcement follows behavior that occurs after an unpredictable amount of time (lottery) |
| continuous reinforcement | schedule that happens every single time we engage in that behavior |
| Positive Punishment | * behavior followed by aversive consequence * aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is "added" |
| Negative Punishment | * behavior followed by aversive consequence * rewarding stimulus is "removed" |
| Behavior Modification Programs | using operant conditioning principles to change human behavior |
| Three Phases of Memory | encoding, storage and retrieval |
| Encoding | the processing of information into the memory system (where you place info) |
| Storage | the retention of encoded information over time (how info is held) |
| Retrieval | the process of getting information out of the memory storage (get info out) |
| Information Processing | the sciences concerned with gathering, manipulating, storing, retrieving, and classifying recorded information |
| Sensory Memory Store | * function: hold info long enough to be processed * capacity: large * duration: .3 sec visual/ 3-4 sec audio * automatically: can't choose not to use it * divided into iconic and echoic memory * requires attention to transfer info to working memory |
| Long-term Memory | * function: organize and store * capacity: unlimited * duration: theoretically permanent (only no because when we age cells mutate) |
| Automatic processing | unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time and frequency and of well-learned information, such as word meanings |
| Effortful processing | encoding that requires attention and conscious effort |
| Rehearsal | consciously repeating the information over and over so that I can keep it in temporary memory |
| Space effect | the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice |
| Serial position effect | our tendency to recall best the last and first items on a list |
| Elaboration | involving many carefully arranged parts or details |
| Visualization | visual image: a mental image that is similar to a visual perception |
| Retrieval cues | info that tells us where to go (tells which "filling cabinet" to open) |
| Encoding Failure | associations attached were not helpful to remember (misplaced content) |
| Storage decay | if you don't use it you lose it ( caused by age, diseases, etc..) |
| Forgetting curve | This curve shows how information is lost over time when there is no attempt to retain it |
| Retrieval Failure | * interference - proactive: old info interferes with new info - retroactive: new info interferes with old info * motivated forgetting -repression |
| Prenatal Development (conception) | *signs of fertility -temperature o basal body temp. :body temp before we move o ovulation temp: temp goes up -discharge -cervix |
| Prenatal Development (fetal development) | * sex organs develop * fetus is fully shaped by 12th week * age of viability (living independently w/o mother) about 22 weeks * finishing touches = weight |
| Teratogens | * can impact fetal development -toxins -viruses - drugs * determined by timing of exposure, amount of exposure and genetic vulnerability |
| Newborns | * reflexes - grasping, sucking, stepping and startle |
| Infancy and Childhood (Physical Development) | - brain: myelination continues after birth, visual pathways start to develop (6 months), auditory pathways (4-5 years), dramatic increase in synaptic connections -motor: coordination |
| Infancy and Childhood (Cognitive Development- sensorimotor) | * sensorimotor: birth-2 years - understanding through sensory experiences and physical actions - infant progress from reflexive, instinctual actions at birth to symbolic thought - object permanence |
| Infancy and Childhood (Cognitive Development- preoperational) | * preoperational (2-7 yrs) - represent world with words and images - increase in symbolic thinking - symbolic thinking and egocentrism |
| Infancy and Childhood (Cognitive Development- concrete operational) | * concrete operational (7-11 yrs) - has logical thinking about concrete contexts - classification skills |
| Infancy and Childhood (Social Development) | * autonomy vs. shame/doubt (1.5-3 yrs) * initiative vs. guilt (3-5 yrs) * industry vs. inferiority (6- puberty) |
| Attachment | an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation |
| Types of Parenting | uninvolved, permissive, authoritarian, authoritative |
| Uninvolved Parent | sets few rules doesn't monitor and offers little active support |
| Permissive Parent | highly supportive but makes few rules and trusts rather than monitors |
| Authoritarian Parent | sets many rules and closely monitors but offers little support |
| Authoritative Parent | * highly supportive and closely monitors and sets rules |
| Adolescence (Physical Development) | * primary (baby making material) and secondary (lower voice, facial hair) sex characteristics * time of firsts - menarche (1st menstrual cycle) - spermenarche (1st ejaculatory substance w/ semen) * myelin at its best |
| Adolescence (Cognitive Development) | * formal operational stage: 11-15 yrs - abstract, idealistic and logical thought - hypothetical/ deductive reasoning * adolescent egocentrism (sense of uniqueness) |
| Adolescence (Social Development) | * identity vs. identity confusion (constantly evolving) |
| James Marcia's Four Identity Statuses | * identity achievement * Identity foreclosure * identity moratorium * identity diffusion |
| Adulthood (Physical Development) | * early adulthood: reach peak of physical development * middle adulthood: most lose height & gain weight and menopause for women |
| Adulthood (Cognitive Development) | * early adulthood: reflexive thinking/variation by edu. * middle adulthood:crystallized intelligence increases, fluid intelligence begins to decline |
| Adulthood (Social Development) | * intimacy vs. isolation * generatively vs. stagnation * love * midlife crisis (DOES NOT EXIST) |
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